Cult of zviždenjak

 Animism, which is inseparable from shamanism is evident in many segments of Bosnian folk religion in whose auspice the longest living cults, which got their religious sense from the Illyrians, embedded their beliefs into the collective consciousness of Bosniaks. The cult of zviždenjak (Salamandra salamandra) among the Bosnian people is closely linked to the cult of the snake and the belief in dragons. The name zviždenjak was given to this lizard since people believed that his scream or whistle could instantly make you deaf. He is also called družđ or diževnjak.

Based on the ancient Bosnian belief we can conclude that in fact zviždenjak is a miniature form of a dragon on earth. Its yellow colour with black spots faithfully depicts Illyrian legend about the god of evil, a large black dragon, who managed to swallow two suns in the sky while the third sun was saved by a swallow. People still today believe that the yellow colour between the black spots represents traces of the two suns that he swallowed. The concept of swallowing in this legend is analogous to the devouring of a dead human body by a zviždenjak and this imposes a conclusion that a dragon feeds of life energy which he gives back to nature in its vegetative or even reincarnating cycle, all the while waking new life in nature itself.

Although in its miniature form zviždenjak has the power to hurt any human that tries to hurt him. Namely, still today it is believed that if someone disturbs or steps on a zviždenjak he can become deaf from zviždenjak scream. It is also connected to rain among the folk since according to folk belief it appears before rain or immediately after it.

Besides obvious fear of seeing a zviždenjak and the belief that this reptile is the messenger of rain, there is no classic divination among the folk about a chance meeting with this animal according to which someone's fortune or misfortune is predicted, as is the case with the fox, rabbit, wolf and the like. Analogous with the snake, the beliefs about zviždenjak are also contradictory; in some, respect is shown to it and in others it is suggested that one should throw a curse on it: "God willing, if you are mine, you should die before me!" or to even undertake more rigorous measures i.e. to kill it. In Kakanj it is believed that it is best to kill zviždenjak 40 days prior to one's own death?! The reason for such behaviour according to belief stemming from Glamoč, Livno, Kupres and Mrkonjić Grad, is that a zviždenjak enters a dead man's body through his mouth and spoils his physical purity, and it is a good deed to kill it. Killing a zviždenjak is in opposition with the attempts of certain anthropologists and ethnologists to proclaim a zviždenjak as man's animal doppelganger, since if that was the case, killing this animal would be forbidden and would represent a great sin.

According to a belief among the Bosnian people each man has his own zviždenjak, although it remains an unknown if one gets him during birth or it appears during one's lifetime. When a man dies, the third day after the funeral, zviždenjak visits that man inside the grave. If the man was sinful during his lifetime, zviždenjak will start devouring him from his nose, but if the man was noble then it will only lay beside that person. That's why one shouldn't kill zviždenjak, if one sees him on a road it is advisable to take it with your hand and place it across the road or onto a meadow. This act of kindness can be connected with a human's attempt to propitiate his afterlife companion so that he will spare him.

In another belief it is mentioned that after a man's death a zviždenjak will visit his sahibija (master) in the grave to welcome him and he will start devouring the cadaver from his big toe. It is interesting to mention that among the Bosnian people it is believed that after a man dies and is buried, at one moment the soul returns into his dead body, entering through the toes, which results in resuscitation of the body but also shock and fear which cause a man to try and get up, he then hits his head on the wooden beams above his head and dies again. That's why we can presume that a zviždenjak starts devouring the body from the toes in order to stop him from reviving; or this act can have a mythological depiction as "life devouring" or taking away life energy from someone.

Besides eating humans from the toes, people in certain parts of Bosnia believe that a zviždenjak eats a man's nose or eyes as soon as he enters a grave. Since eyes are, according to belief, god's gift to humans and are as such holly, which also supports another belief which claims that there is no greater sin then a man swearing by his eyes, we can conclude then that a zviždenjak always goes after tabooed parts of the body. According to folk belief god had the most trouble with creating a nose, and that's why making fun of someone's nose is considered to be a great sin. Analysing the above we come to a conclusion that a zviždnejak's task is to devour a man's toes in the grave (in order to stop him from reviving), or nose and then drinks his eyes i.e. to take away his heavenly gift after which the body will be completely lifeless and without any divine sanctity. By that the human body becomes a clod of earth, from which it was created.

In the myth about the black dragon and his devouring of the sun or moon, we notice the hunger of this being for all that which sparks and has a divine characteristic. The attack of darkness and evil on light and good is an anthological tradition about two universal principles through whose interaction, creation, destruction, life and death are possible. As zviždenjak represents a miniature dragon his devouring of evil people inside a grave can be seen as an act of feeding a dragon who needs strength from evil. This is clearly visible in those parts of belief which accentuates that zviženjak starts devouring the body at the beginning or end of the body, i.e. at the places considered holly. Besides zviždenjak in the Bosnian tradition it is believed that a snake visits a dead person inside a grave and devours him and in such a way he becomes a part of it. This fits perfectly into the Illyrian myth about the great grandfather of the Illyrians which turns into a snake after he dies. 

 

Illyrian religion and Bosnian mythology

Cultural anthropology which combines a few special disciplines such as ethnology, archaeology or linguistics, gives us a perfect insight into the history and heritage of a certain people, and it tries, fairly successfully, to show in a logical sense the evolutionary trend present throughout history among a certain people. Influences are, of course, socially multifaceted, and so with the cultural the religious influence was supplemented and the circle would be complete.

If we wish to monitor carefully that evolutionary sequence of events then we surely must reach out to mythology, its fantastic creatures and legends, mostly for the fact that mythology is the most archaic form of art which for the first time showed mankind's limitless imagination.  Inhabiting nature and the world around them with highly unusual and different beings and appearances, mankind first of all showed their social nature, but also the need to express its intimate fears, hopes, aspirations and frustrations. The tendency to express oneself in the best possible way resulted in the appearance of various stories, legends, drawings and sculptures about a different world where the principles of good and evil are highly accentuated, and what is more important, where they show their meaning and efficiency. Through those mediums we come across information about classic frustration with everyday life to which people were subject to in the old days as well as today. That's why mythology as a discipline always suggests that there is no one answer but that there are many.

Consistency of mythological legends is evident in various segments of a society in its entirety, even though it might not be so visible at first glance. Some of its parts, smaller or larger segments, are so incorporated in everyday life that no one pays attention to them, nor is their deeper meaning analysed. In more recent past mythology was present in social memory mostly when one wanted to achieve a political goal, which is always connected with nationalism and genocidal ideas, which we could witness during the end of the last century when the militant politics of Serbia specifically and deliberately used the historic event, defeat by the Ottomans at Kosovo, to start their military invasion on neighbouring republics which had catastrophic circumstances, such as the genocide in Srebrenica but also in other cities in BiH.

When we want to study the mythology of Bosnia and Herzegovina but also of the entire former Yugoslavia we have to start from the historical fact that southern Slavs don't exist. There are only people of southern Europe which use Slavic languages, but those people are not of Slavic descent but Illyrian, especially the people from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, which was proven a couple of times with the analysis of genetic origin. The mistake that historians made in their estimate of the origin of a certain people based solely on their language is catastrophic and, as we have witnessed, historically tragic. According to that theory todays Mexicans should be Spaniards, Brazilians or Portuguese, etc.

One of the studies on genetic origin of the inhabitants of former Yugoslav republics was implemented in cooperation with: Institute for Anthropological research in Zagreb, Medical University in Skopje, Clinical centre in Belgrade, Estonian Bio-centre at the Tart University, Medical University in Priština, Medical Faculty in Tuzla, Clinical hospital "Bijeli Brijeg" in Tuzla, Health centre in Zagreb and Medical school in Edinburgh - Scotland. For the results to be as close to reality in the field, the tests were gathered in all cities of the former Yugoslav republic.

The results showed that the most dominant were the haplogroup's on the territory of former Yugoslavia: 1lb, R1a, R1b and E3bl. Haplogroup l1b or so called "Illyrian gene" was the most widespread in all countries of former Yugoslavia, and the most interesting fact is that the group l1b was present even in 70% in Herzegovina, Dalmatia and other islands.  In Bosnia this group was present in 52, 20% while the Slavic group R1 on the entire territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was present only in 24,60% of the cases.

Precisely those facts correspond with the ever present confusion of scientific circles, especially after genetic analysis, did the arrival of Slavic tribes to the Balkans really ever took place? There are indications which gain more authenticity, that such an event never took place, but that the Illyrians, after a difficult and long occupation by the Roman empire, created a pretty intelligent plan of survival and preservation through assimilation of languages of neighbouring Slavic countries in order to ensure some sort of peace and possibility for survival through a turbulent history.  

Many segments of Illyrian religion are still present today in all countries that made up the former Yugoslav republic such as the snake cult, belief in stars-guardians of souls, cult of fertility, and solar and lunar cults, worship of water through the cult of god Bindu, belief in spellbound eyes, the name spellbound (Urok) is an Illyrian word, etc.

 

Cult of the dead among the Bosnian people

The Bosnian people are probably the only people on the Balkans which managed to maintain the burial custom of burying dead family members in the vicinity of the home. Even though there are mutual graveyards, usually owned by one family or village, the practice of burying ancestors in yards was not lost until the end of the last century. The remnants of that tradition probably stem from a Neolithic era of Old Europe and they are still present today in yards of many old houses.

Namely, in the Neolithic period the family members, especially women and children, were buried inside the house or between houses in the settlement which is a practice spawned by matriarchy. Such codex of behaviour is closely connected with the cult of fertility and worship of the Grand Mother which had patronage over the house and family. Burying ancestors close to the home had a social-magical background which nurtured the cult of the dead, respect of ancestors, and celebration of new life.

Among the Bosnian people we cannot find classic fear from death or graveyards, which is found among the neighbouring people, which is also recorded by certain historians such as Dr. Carl Steiner. They record in the supplement of "Bosnian folk medicine" that each Friday, but also during other days of the week, Bosniaks of differing age gather on graveyards in order to talk and rest. Reports especially stress that during such encounters among the people there are no external signs of sadness and depression, yet the people enjoy resting in the shade of a linden tree, acacia and other trees and enjoy the smell of lilac and the song of birds. The younger population spend time there and enjoy making jokes.

 

 

Bird - the symbol of the cult of dead

 

Special attention at graveyards is paid to the birds by the Bosnian people, trying to create favourable conditions for building a nest. Following that intent they would create holes on the tombstones so called nišan, which would be used to gather rain water and where they would leave food for birds. In the same way, the custom of planting trees next to graves was also widespread in order to feed the birds and in such a way to help the soul of the deceased.

Why was such attention paid to birds is best understood if we analyse those segments of Bosnian mythology that deals with religious-magical role of birds. In the mythic consciousness of the people, the bird is a symbol of the soul which is mentioned in the legend about the mysterious night bird Plačo or Meknjača which, according to folk belief, personifies a soul of a deceased child and whose voice announces death. And in the legend about the large celestial bird the connection to the cult of dead is evident because of the ritualistic practice which is widespread among the Bosnian people which used to burn the peel of the fruit in order to use smoke to feed the cursed bird. It, without a doubt, has a mediator role between humans and God since she is sentenced never to land on earth until judgement day. Feeding the large celestial bird with smoke the people are doing a good deed and in such a way symbolically they get rid of their sins in order for the soul to fly more easily to god since it is fee of its sins.

We cannot forget to mention gold winged utva, mysterious half woman half bird, which can be directly connected to the cult of marsh birds among the Illyrians, which drag the heavenly chariot of the sun god. The solar cult if inseparable from the cult of the dead since the sun represents a symbol of death and new life, which is born from the darkness and brings life to the entire world.  

 

     

Urok

It is interesting to point out that the Illyrians as a nation were prone to superstition, healing and magic, and that's why their mages were well known across the Roman empire. Based on that fact it is easy to presume why even today on the Balkans there are numerous magical beliefs, but also practice, which has nothing to do with monotheism but exclusively with ancient cults of the Illyrian tribes. One of the best examples is the belief in the evil power of spellbound eyes or urok.

Urok is an Illyrian word which means to spellbind or fascinate. The Illyrians, like all Mediterranean people were prone to belief in the negative power of the urok, evil demon of disease and bad luck which attacks humans, animals and even dead objects. Unlike other demons urok is closely associated to humans and lives inside them or next to them.  

Urok has an effect (attack) motivates hate, jealousy, wonderment or excessive love of one person towards another. Caused by some of these emphasized emotions urok attacks a human, directly through human eyes and speech, causing various diseases and states such as a headache, increased temperature, sleepiness, fatigue . If its attack is directed towards small children then the urok can cause death in a short period.

Urok is a demon which can, according to Bosnian belief, make a happy man unhappy, a healthy man unhealthy, etc. The Illyrian used various prophylactic items to shield themselves from this demon, carrying amulets shaped like a snake, circle, various shells, etc. Red colour had a special power, according to belief, which protected the Illyrians from disease, especially the one caused by the effect of urok. All diseases created by the effects of urok were cured by tribal shamans and experienced older wives with the help of magical rituals and by uttering formulas. If someone would get sick in the middle of urok then they would take some dirt from a footprint of a person for which it is believed that has spurred a demon and they would then mix the dirt with water which would be used to sprinkle and wash the diseased person.  

Stars - human souls

Since the Illyrian times the stars are guardians of life or better said they are human souls. According to Bosnian belief each human gets a star once he/she is born which will shine until he/she dies, the star then falls from the sky. The Illyrians were scared of staring at the sky since they could glimpse their own star and die, if the star happened to fall at that moment.

 

Still today among the Bosnian people there is a belief of connectedness between a man and his star by way of his forehead, between his eyebrows to be more exact, so called third eye, which was protected in the old days by wearing a hat or a bandana. Evil is always trying to harm humans in that particular area in order to disturb his life energy and undermine his whole fate and life. That's why in the past there was a custom that each morning and evening males put on a hat and females a bandana over that area, "in order to protect the star" and they would utter:

 

Sabah huzi hurmet, okolo mi kuvet,

šejtanu nalet, Muhammedu salavet.

 

This formula is repeated three times.

 

 

 

 

 

Black sky dragon

A dragon is one of the original representatives of Bosnian mythology whose cult was widespread among our Illyrian ancestors shaped in the belief of a black sky dragon who devours the sun or moon during an eclipse. That's why an eclipse inspired hysterical fear from end of the world, and the Illyrian's tried to save themselves banging on various metal buckets creating a dreadful noise in order to scare and chase away the dragon. The black sky dragon among the Illyrian tribes was considered a god of evil and the belief was upheld until modern times through various stories and legends.

The belief of our ancestors was preserved among the Bosnian people and that's why even today among the elderly we can hear statements that claim that the eclipse is nothing else but a dragon devouring the sun. That's why the elderly regularly warn people not to go anywhere during an eclipse, they should sit down and wait for it to pass. Since a dragon is described as a large snake in Bosnian mythology we can see open hostility of the sun and the snake. Namely, according to a belief from Central Bosnia when someone kills a snake the sun stops in the sky and utters "May your hands be golden!", and if someone comes across a snake and doesn't kill it the sun curses him with words "May your hands shrivel!".

 

 

An old Bosnian legend reveals that three sun's used to be in the sky, until a dragon ate two of them and the third was saved by a swallow, which took it high into the sky. That's why a swallow and a dragon (snake) are mortal enemies. As another legend mentions, the swallow saved mankind from a snake which went to god with a wish to feast on humans. As soon as the swallow heard that, she managed to trick the snake into stretching out her tongue and as soon as she did that, the swallow struck her tongue with her beak and split it into two parts, the snake went to god, and she wasn't able to speak clearly which infuriated god who determined that the snake shall feast on frogs and mice.

Among the Bosnian folk there are numerous beliefs and legends about snakes (dragon) as a confirmation how much this animal represents a totem to our ancestors, it had a dominant role in the spiritual consciousness of the Bosnian folk throughout history. Regardless of numerous legends the snake is after all considered as a saviour of mankind which is best illustrated by the legend of Noah's ark and the mouse.  

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Fenjeri

 In the decades before WWII some chroniclers recorded unusual phenomena in various parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Certain glowing forms appeared, "fenjer (lantern)" which acted almost as intelligent beings: they moved, jumped, danced in circles ... The inhabitants of the village in Glamoč and Livno field reported that "fenjer" used to gather during summer nights to dance and play, but that they caused no harm besides scaring night travellers and their horses, which is a sign that they were clearly seen by animals. Glowing "fenjer" changed their size and shape and they disappeared at dawn. The people interpreted their appearance as a bad sign - the omen of great sorrow. Not long after those mysterious appearances the war came and numerous villages were burned and the people killed.

After the aggression on Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995) stories appeared that in Foča and Jajce the Imam's call can be heard from the places where mosques stood before the war and where Muslims gathered for centuries to perform religious rituals. New inhabitants of these cities are confused and scared since they can't explain where the sounds are coming from.   

Al Karisi

Alkarisi (or Al Karisi) are female Jinn which are according to Bosnian mythology connected to pregnant women and women at childbirth. It is believed that they originated from a girl that never married. They are given away by a goat's voice. It is considered that there are two types, one is black and the other yellow. The black ones are Alkarisi and they are more dangerous than the yellow ones, they are very shrewd and inteligentny. Yellow Alkarisi have the appearance of a blond girl but they sometimes take the form of a goat or a fox. One shouldn't believe anything from either of them. Alkarisi are afraid of men and they always run away when they fire their firearms, that's where the tradition of firing a firearm after a child has been born stems from. Also, they are scared of metal and that's why next to a pregnant woman there is always some sort of metal such as a nail.

Azrail

From all of the angels in Bosnian mythology only Azrail took the most intricate place because of the role which was given to him by Allah and that role encompasses taking souls from the human body. Because of such a task the humans are scared of him but make jokes about him at the same time, especially old people which comment "that Allah still hasn't sent them a telegram via Azrail" and that's why they are still alive. However, it is believed among the folk that Azrail's task of taking souls isn't easy since the soul is wrapped 99 times around each joint.

According to a story a man found out from a famous prophet on which day he will die and at what time and so struck with panic and wanting to live he decided to fool Azrail. As the prophet told him that he will die exactly at noon he mounted a horse half an hour before that time and galloped quickly towards the mountains, far away from his home believing that Azrail won't be able to find him. With a quick gallop and struck with panic the man pushed his horse to run as fast as he could so he can be as far away from his house as possible when the hour strikes noon. He rushed and rushed always looking behind to make sure that he went far away from his home. At that moment of inadvertency the horse tripped on a large rock, fumbled and fell into an abyss pulling his rider with it. The man died.

This story may not be a classic example of fatalism which is always present among the Bosnian folk. The start and end of life are predicted by Allah's will and no one can escape from it. That's why people believe that Azrail is the most intelligent of all angels since no one can trick him. It is also believed among the folk that Azrail can appear to someone in his/her sleep, in the form of a white horse. That's why it is said to the one who dreamt of a white horse that Azrail appeared to him as a messenger of death, and that someone close to him shall die.

It is interesting to say that according to Bosnian belief life and death both begin and end with the involvement of an angel. Namely, a child before it is born receives from an angel senet - a confirmation that when it is born it shall not die, to entice it to exit the mother's womb. But, as soon as it starts coming out he angels take away its senet and it is believed that this is the reason all children cry.

Bogomil story

Bosnian story about Did Adža is actually an old Bogomil story about life and death and Did Adža is nothing more than a Bogomil priest. He appears at the very beginning of the story about three brothers (three life stages) whose food he steals (soul, life) with which he tests and tries them. While the two brothers fail the exam the third brother beats him with his wisdom. But, the story doesn't end there but turns into and odyssey which leads our hero into the world of the dead. According to Bosnian belief one reaches that world through a well. In the underworld the hero is freed from his sins by doing a good deed and in such a way he gets an opportunity to return to the land of the living. On that journey he offers as kurban (sacrifice) 40 lambs and at the end of the sacrifice a part of his body which is a classic example of the Bogomil philosophy that the human body was created by Lucifer and that it is full of sin from which one can be freed only if it is sacrificed. The story has a happy ending and in the spirit of the Bosnian Bogomil tradition it acquaints that a man can win against evil inside and around us with his will and belief.

 

 According to the story from Velika Kladuša about Did Adže it is said that in the old days there was a father with three sons. Since they didn't have a mother the father always left one son at home to make food so the others have something to eat when they come back from the field. The first morning the eldest of the three stayed home. When his father and brothers returned home for lunch they found an empty table. To the father's question: "Where is our lunch?" the son replied: "Did Adže came by with his white beard riding a rooster and he stole the food". The next day the father left his other son at home, the middle one, with the task of cooking food and they went to the field. However, the same thing happened as yesterday. On the third day the third son stayed at home. Knowing that Did adze will arrive he started thinking what to do and he came up with an idea. Finishing lunch he went outside and bent a sapling and he split it in half. Sometime later Did Adže appeared on his rooster. As soon as the boy saw him he asked him for help to hold the sapling, which he did not suspecting anything. As soon as Did Adže grabbed the tree the boy grabbed his beard and placed it into the split and tied it and then released the sapling and Did Adže hung from it by his beard wallowing in pain. Did Adže begged for a long time for the boy to release him which he refused until he told the boy that he knew of a place where people brought and sacrificed a virgin each month to a dragon so that he would release the water and save them from a drought. Did Adže revealed that the dragon has a weak spot and if he is struck there he will immediately die. The one who killed the dragon could then marry the beautiful girl. The youngest son liked the story and he released Did Adže who told him where that place is located.   

When the father returned home with his sons he was happy that there was food on the table. After the meal the youngest brother revealed his plan to his brothers which decided to help him by lowering him in a basket made out of brushwood (sepet) into a deep well (čatrnja). In the darkness of the underworld he saw a girl but also a dragon who was preparing to eat her. Since he knew what the dragon's weak spot was the youngest brother stood up to him and killed him. Since both of them couldn't fit in the basket the young man decided that the girl should be hoisted up first. When the girl game up and after the two brothers saw her beauty in the light of the day they quickly decided that they are not going to hoist up their younger brother, but that the two of them shall compete for the girl's love. They covered the well with branches and stones so that their youngest brother can't come to the surface. In such a manner he stayed in the underworld doomed. After he figured out that his brother's abandoned him he decided that he isn't going to give up but to search for a way out of the land of the dead. Since it was cold he decided to collect some wood to make a fire so he searched for some branches. His search lead him to a giant tree his gaze lifted upward and he saw a nest with baby birds inside it. He also noticed a large snake crawling up the tree with the intent of eating the birds. That saddened him so he decided to help the birds and kill the snake, after that he continued with his search. However, not long after that a large eagle comes flying by whose wings were a few feet wide. While descending the eagle made a huge gust of wind so the boy covered his face with his hands. All of a sudden the eagle spoke up with a human voice thanking him for saving his children and offered a favour in return. The young man told him that he was searching for a way out of the underworld. The eagle thought about it and said - I will fulfil your wish but you will have to find 40 lambs which you will throw in my beak every time I gawk since the path to the human world is long and difficult I will need a lot of strength.

The young man asked the eagle to give him a few days time to find the lambs and then they can be off. The eagle agreed. A few days later since he met the conditions that the bird asked for, he sat on the bird's back and they flew away. They flew through a deep darkness through which they heard screams of unhappy people, various silhouettes appeared as well as various scenes of torture and suffering. The eagle answered all of the questions that the boy had. Seeing a naked woman with bloody feet running after a small bird he asked the eagle what is her punishment and the  eagle replied that while she was alive she killed her baby while it was still in her stomach. Then he saw another naked woman sitting atop a young pine tree licking blood off of a blade. That also seemed strange to him so he asked the eagle who replied that she was unfaithful to her husband.

The journey was really long and the eagle gawked for the first time, the second and third... they crossed large distances and the boy noticed that the scenes from the underworld slowly disappeared and that somewhere in the distance there was a dim light. His heart started beating faster. Just a bit more and I shall be out, I will see my old man and my brothers, he thought. But, he was startled by the fact that he gave the last lamb to the eagle and that they are not out yet. The possibility of the eagle failing started to worry him. Seeing that the eagle is slowing down and loosing strength he decided to do a desperate deed, he cut off his leg and in horrible agony he threw it into the eagles mouth after he gawked. When he woke up he was lying on a green meadow, the sun was shining and he heard the song of nightingale. After he came to his senses he saw the eagle standing beside him.

- When you threw your leg I felt in my beak that it wasn't lamb meat so I couldn't eat it out of great respect that I have for you. That's why I gathered all my strength and decided that I shall bring you out to the land of the living no mater what. And, as you see I made it. Your leg is where it always was. I'm going back to my little birds, I don't need a lot of strength to go back since it is easy to enter the underworld but difficult to come out.

Rahimino turbe

The legend from Srebrenik mentions that in the village Sladna Rahima (Raha) lived, an extremely pious woman with a big heart who didn't have nothing besides a small humble house and two cows. But, her poverty was never an obstacle to feeding a hungry man and to help where help is needed not caring much about the other persons religion or nationality. When she died, on the seventh night after the burial, on her tomb unexplainable lights appeared (nur) which shone for the next 40 days illuminating everything around the grave. Because of that miracle the people declared her a saint and decoded to build a mausoleum (turbe) for which people in Srebrenik still today claim that it protects them from every evil.

 

Four books of power

According to legend in the time of king Solomon, there was a large number of magical books whose content revealed ways in which humans can be harmed by various spells. Four books were also written which were called Velika Sulejmanija which represented four elements of nature and served for destruction of magic and every evil. By Solomon's order they were walled in, inside the four pillars of the temple in order to be preserved from destruction. When the king died the ruler of all demon's Iblis ordered the Jinn to gather all the magical books from the temple and divide them among humans around the world. But, Iblis didn't manage to find out where these four books were. A humble sage by the name Laden managed to find them centuries later who hid the books for a long time and finally before he died he hid them somewhere in Jerusalem. God's will was that they should be discovered by a man who was remembered by his great wisdom. Sine Jesus was murdered and crucified and the entire world was in chaos, Allah decided to send another messenger to humanity to lead the people out of the darkness. -He will be from the Arab nations, the prophecy sounded which was heard by all. While Muhammad was still a boy he asked his uncle Ebu Talib to travel in his caravan. During that time a Christian priest met them and he immediately recognised a holly child since there was a cloud the entire time above him, protecting him from the sun. Realising that it is the announced prophet, the priest whispered to Ebu Talib to get the boy home and take good care of him. Because of his wisdom the priest found out about the four books, he located them and translated them into ancient Arabic. In order to save them from probable destruction he sent them in four holly lands in order for them to protect the world from destruction. At the end of each book it was written:  

1. fire - Palestine, letter Gayn (which means that the first book is located in Gaza),

2. earth - Russia, letter Be - Siberia (which means that the second book is located in Siberia),

3. water - India, letter Shin - Kashmir.

4. air - three letters Waw, Bosna, the fourth book is located in Bosnia between Stoca and Travnik.
 

All four books cannot change continents nor states, only cities and places. In the same way, the books can change owners but only after their death.

 

Hudam

In the tradition of the Bosnian folk a belief in special type of spiritual beings has been retained, these beings were called hudami. It is believed that the word hudam comes from the Arabic word hadim, which means the one that serves or servant. In order for a hudam to start serving a human, a contact must be established between them and then a type of contract, in which both sides define their obligations and interests.

 

 

In Bosnian mythology there are a few traditions which describe the way in which an individual can come into contact with a hudam. The first one tells how a person repeats special prayers for 40 days carrying all the while a pigeon's egg under his armpit. In another tradition about the connection with a hudam it is mentioned that a rooster after it lives for 20 years lays an egg. That egg must be carried under one's armpit for 40 days and repeat special prayers in order for a hudam to appear out of the egg, etc.  

When a contact is established with a hudam and mutual obligations are established a different type of life begins for the human which seems strange for his surroundings. According to the ethnological works hudami even prepared and served coffee to their owners, sat at the table with them and ate. Such people usually lived a solitary life, and the testimonials about their shared meals with the hudi are fascinating and speak about the fact that the food disappeared from the plate before the eyes of the attendants, but that in fact they couldn't see anyone eating the food or where the food went. Furthermore, there were occasions when the hudami moved stuff around the room which caused disbelief, shock and fear among the present.

There are a few documented cases about the people about which it was known that they possess hudami and one of them was the well-known and rich Arifbeg Đumišić from Sanski Most. During one of his visits to his sister Hanumica, Arifbeg asked the mother in law of his sister to make him coffee early in the morning which she refused. The coffee was in the morning prepared and served, according to the story of Hanumica, by the maiden Gospa which later turned out that she was sleeping and that the room of the mother in law was all in disorder. Mysterious events of that morning were explained by the actions of hudami which prepared and served coffee but also messed up the room of the disobedient mother in law as a warning that the wishes of his master must be followed.    

Flowers that smell like sorrow

Bosnian lily (Lilium bosniacum) is a flower of Bosnia and Bosnian people. Extraordinarily beautiful flower, dignified, all in golden-yellow color it proudly keeps its loftiness and regal posture  while its red stamen symbolize blood of the Bosnian man, which was often shed because of the enemies of this country. The Bosnian lily became a symbol for the suffering of Bosnian people during the aggression on Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992 to 1995. In a tragic song it is mentioned that a lily each year on July 11^th changes its fragrance and that day it smells like sorrow and pain. That day from the lily the blood drips on the sacred Bosnian land on which the dead bodies of murdered men, women and children of Srebrenica, Sarajevo, Žepa, Zvornik, Bijeljina, Foča, Višegrad, Prijedor, etc. lay.        

 

 

Utve with golden wings or Utve zlatokrile

In Bosnian mythology mystical being are mentioned and described as half women half bird which has golden wings. They are called utve with golden wings and according to mythological classification they belong to beings of positive action which help individuals during hunt or other activities, entire villages or even nations. According to belief utve are immortal and from the beginning there is always a same number of them, which still remains unknown, which brings us to a conclusion that they don't have the ability to reproduce.

The people describe them as beautiful girls with luscious breasts and from the stomach downward they have bird's legs and feathers. They are adorned with golden wings of a wide span and while they fly they spread light in a large circle. According to the legend about the king which conquered the Indus people in certain parts of Bosnia believed that utve had bird's heads and chests and legs and backsides like a woman. According to legend utveescaped from India into Bosnia after a powerful king invaded India with his army, in that "cursed land" and there he came across beings with a head of a rooster and a body of a man which offered resistance for months and warred against him until he conquered them.

But since people often connect directly or indirectly utve and faeries it is then completely clear that their appearance was more feminine and beautiful, i.e. that they had female heads and breasts with bird legs. In support of this thesis is the lack of any data that utve gave birth to a child or had a love relationship with a human being.

People recount about utve that they are like faeries who escaped into the mountains and hard to reach places from the time when guns and cannons appeared because they couldn't take the sound of guns which only brings evil and death.

Analyzing the tradition about utve we come to a conclusion that after all we are dealing with an ancient myth which probably comes from Persia and is based on the belief in Amenta Spentas, forerunners of angels of monotheism. Amenta Spentas are seven immortal winged beings whose purpose is to preserve the harmony in nature among the humans, spreading justice and truth. Belief in them was taken over by the Jews, Christians and in the end Muslims calling them Arch-angels.

Ramo and Bajro

Ramo and Bajro are two mythological characters which represent the month of Ramadan and the holiday of Eid (Bajram), to whom the imagination of people has given the design and characteristics of humans. While Ramo is a stingy old man who spends his days in renunciation and avoidance of every opportunity to live a different life from the one that he is used to from his childhood, Bajro is his complete opposite. He is a jolly old man who is first of all a hedonist, loves company of friends and is always optimistic when it comes to the future. In thos moments when they meet, which is often, they always get into a fight because of their differing life philosophies but they always, in the spirit of faith and Muslim solidarity, reconcile in order to convey a wise message to the listener.
Sometimes alongside them there are two other young men that appear Šaronja and Bjelonja. The first one represents a typical Bosnian who lives by the directive of that its important to fast the first, the middle and the last day of Ramadan in order to satisfy the least amount of necessary religion, while Bjelonja doesn't even undertake that. Unlike Šaronja, he doesn't wish to wear a mask of hypocrisy so he presents himself like he really is, with all of his flaws and virtues. All characters have a comical note to them and they often go from one extreme to
another, but it always has a happy ending.

Fairies of Bosnian mythology

If some faeries take particular care of a human, that then means that he carries a deeper connection to their world. Such persons shall stand out in life with enlightened wisdom. To be the favourite of the faeries, that is if he is noble and the faeries like him, means that one has the ability to hear their song or even distinguish their mysterious verses heard through the wind. Such a man will appreciate the truth since most faeries are guardians of truth and they drive away lies. However, if an encounter of a faery and a bad person takes place, that person is then risking mental illness.

Bosnian mythology enumerates many names for faeries, the most famous ones are: Bosnian faery, faery queen Golden, Red faery, Forest faery, faery of the mountains (mountain faery), Black faery, water faery etc. Certain faeries have characteristic names such as Gope, Gospa, Srebra, Bilka, etc.

 

Red faery (Crvena vila)

She usually appears around sunset. They usually sit in an alley or next to a road combing her long red hair. The one who meets her can be harmed when she swings her hair in his direction and hits him with it. A man becomes sick from that blow and sometimes they can fall into a coma. Her symbol is the colour red.

 

 

Bosnian faery (Bosanska vila)

She is a girl with golden hair and luscious bosom. She wears a long white gown whose edges are sown through with a golden thread. In her hair there is a flower of lily. Her body is adorned with large wings which she uses, according to legend, to fly through the air and fly over Bosnia in all directions. Bosnian faery has a mellifluous voice and she sings often. By nature she falls within the benevolent kind. She can often be found in the company of other faeries which are of a lower rank than her. Her symbol is the flower lily (Lilium bosniacum).

 

 

Mountain faery (vila Planinka)

She is a faery that has a garland of flowers in her hair. She wears a long dress and sometimes she holds a walking stick in her hand. She has the ability to transform and she often transforms into a goat for easier passage along the steep hillside. She is familiar with all of the secrets of the plants and healing. Herdsmen often encounter her, and she helps them if there is a need for it. Her symbol is a white goat.

 

 

Forest faery (Gorska vila)

She is among the oldest faeries and she is often called the mother of faeries. It is considered that Golden faery is her daughter which inherited her. Forest faery is the one which is most remembered among the Bosnian folk because she was the reason that Mujo Hrnjica became the biggest hero of Bosnia and Herzegovina. She is meek and wise by nature and she has a mellifluous voice. The Bosnian witches (stravarka) call them for aid during healing rituals addressing them with words "mother, sister". Her symbol is a golden apple.

 

 

Faery queen Golden (kraljica vila Zlatna)

She is the mistress of all Bosnian faeries. She lives in large thick forests and always moves in the company of her subjects. At night, especially during a full moon, she exits the forests and bathes in a river or pond. She has golden wings and a crown on her head. After her bath she sings and plays with the other faeries on some mound until the first rooster sounds at dawn. Her symbol is a full moon.

 

 

Water faery (Vodena vila)

She is the guardian of all springs and it is believed that humans can suddenly fall ill if he walks next to a spring during night or if he accidentally disturbs a faery that is bathing. That's why there was a folk custom to great the spring with these words "Selam alejk, water and waters guardians!" Showing respect towards the faery the humans tried to protect themselves from their rage. All water faeries are by nature egoistic and vengeful. They usually hate men and they are always trying to trick them and drown them in the water while they are more merciful towards the women and they sometimes help them. The symbol of a water faery is a silver coin.   

 

 

Black faery (Crna vila)

She is also called which-faery since she appears in the form of a dark shadow especially around the time of holidays Beltaine (May) and Samhaine (October-November). Sometimes they appear after sunset but more often at nights with moonlight. She appears suddenly and disappears quickly. From all of the faeries the black faery doesn't speak much nor does she sing. Her symbol is black colour.

 

 

Holly herbs of Bosnian paganism

Visibaba (Galanthus) since ancient times among the Bosnian folk this herb is named Baba or Grandma which alluded to dedication of this spring herb to the old deity Baba or old lady, ancient mother goddess. In the preserved writings of Bosnian ritual witchcraft this herb was used to remove sleepiness and spring fatigue from men, especially children. A stem of snowdrop (visibaba) would be circled three times around a person's head, clockwise, uttering " Snowdrop is sleeping and you're not, snowdrop is sad and you're happy!".

Heavenly husband and Baba's retainer is Did or old man, ancient sun god, to whom a plant has been dedicated in the south-western part of Bosnia by the name of Did or Silymarin. The plant was tabooed and holly which proves the folk belief that it shouldn't be trampled. The one who does so, will befall an accident.   

Bosnian Fairy

 

Herbs for magic but also for healing is infrequently grown in the gardens if the witches since they believe that the largest magic capacity can be found in "wild" grown (from God) plants especially if it grows in hard to reach places next to a river or a creek. Particularly amazing power is possessed by forest herbs, especially if there is a creek flowing through the forest. In the old Bosnian legends the faeries live inside the forests, and among them the famous Bosnian fairy, with whose song and dance all of the vegetation swells and grows and in special cycles it gains magical powers.

Cult of the mother goddess in Bosnia

The existence of the cult of the large mother is found in the Stone Age. She was considered to be the mother of humans and gods and her cult spread along the Mediterranean belt, which once contained the Illyrian kingdom and today, among other countries, the modern day Bosnia and Herzegovina. The cult of the large mother stems from Syria, according to the available data, from which it spread to other countries and we can find it in Egypt (Izida), Babylon (Ishtar), Asia Minor (Kibela), Greece (Demetra), etc. The Syrian name Taschter or Tir, from which the name Astharte is derived, is present in Bosnia by the name of Tur, Tir or in the female form Tirinica.

 

Astharte was a goddess of the moon, fertility and motherhood but also of war, described as a horned deity, with a head of a bull. This data is key to linking her with the Illyrians and the myth about the bull Garonja who is only familiar to the Bosnians, the Serbs and Croats don't mention him in their mythology. 

According to all of the archeological data the ox or bull belonged to the cult of the moon among the Illyrian tribes. It is important to note that the bull is a common symbol of the cult of the mother among all of the ancient peoples, the myth about Mithras also existed among the Persians; he killed the godlike bull and created entire nature out of his blood, especially wheat.

In Donja Dolina (Sanski Most) during the excavation of an Illyrian village, a skull of a pre-bull was found  (Bos primigenius), which is - as Ć. Truhelka speculates, attached to the façade of the house and served as a bucranium. It is known that a head of a bull was hung on the walls of temples in Greece once it has been sacrificed to the gods, and that's where the tradition originated from also this is the reason for all of the bucranium carvings on temples and various other structures.

Numerous depictions of oxen are from an earlier time, they didn't always carry an explicit message, but they surely weren't only decorative in nature. It is interesting that the findings are only limited to the north, and to a lesser extent to central areas where the Illyrians lived, even though it is fairly certain that in other areas there was also a religious system in which the ox, as a lunar symbol, was connected to the cult of the large mother. Here we're referring to the area occupied by the Liburn people, then people from the region Dalmatia and partially tribes in the southern and central parts of the Illyrian tribes. Also in this case, as with many other symbols, lack of illustrations should be sought in the sphere of esthetic comprehension of the former men, not only in the religious differences, i.e. the lack of the cult of the bull in specific Illyrian regions.

Ritual slaughter of the bull as a sign of fertility and its connection with the cult of the large mother was very old in these regions,  and was preserved unchanged to this day in the Balkans and elsewhere.

 

 

Bosnian myth about the bull Turu

 

 

In publications "Supplements for oriental philology:  Revue de philology orientale" from 1980 the following content is mentioned on page 311: "In 1933 from a poor old woman, Puhalovka Alijaginica, who lived in Čerbedžije in Sarajevo, literally recorded the following: "On Wednesdays when you pray afternoon prayer and bow: Ognju and Ognjevom Piru, Turu, Hadži Dedi, Hadži Kasapi, Sitoj Nefisi, Vejsil Karaniji, their parents and brother Mevelan". Checking whether this tradition is still prevalent in other places, I found out from Mahmud Traljić (born in Sarajevo in 1918)that he listened to the enumeration of these names from a Muslim woman from Sarajevo Fatima Hajrić, which died in 1961 or 1962 in her 102^nd year.

As Oganj, Ognjev Pir and Tur or Tir don't belong among the names of Islamic saints it is evident that these names are actually folk names for Illyrian deities. In my opinion we're dealing with two deities i.e. sun god Oganj (fire) or Ognjev Pir (emperor of fire) and goddess of the moon Tur or Tir. In other words, this means that among the Bosnian Muslims there were people who unknowingly, before WWII, prayed to the ancient gods. Confirmation of this fact can easily be found in the fact that these deities were presented in one context.

That Tur-Tir is a female deity is confirmed by a statement from Seid Traljić who mentions a female cult name Tirinica, whose godlike characteristics were annulled by Islam, but her name was kept in prayers until WWII, since it was considered holly.      

The Bosnian folk believed from old times that the Earth resting on the back of a large bull called in some places Garonja. According to belief when he moves his ears there will be an earthquake and when he shakes his entire body it is believed that it will be the end of the world. Ethnologist Gržetić stated succinctly the belief which perhaps best depicts who is behind the character of Garonja, namely: "the people in Bosnia still to this day believe that the earth is supported by Turu, and once he shakes, there will be an earthquake". Meaning, the original name of the bull is Tur and not Garonja as is mentioned in south-western part of Bosnia.

According to everything that is written it is easy to conclude that the ancient mother goddess is behind the character of Tur or Tir (Tirinica), which was also depicted with the head of a bull. She is the mother of fertility, i.e. earth, and it is logical that he is depicted supporting the earth. It is quite probable that the Latin word for bull - Taurus stems from the name Tur.

On the prevalence of the cult of the mother goddess in Bosnia and Herzegovina the following place names testify, such as: Turovo (beneath Jahorina), Turić (Gradačac), Turići (Vlahovići near Travnik, Lugovi near Fojnica, Banovići, Visoko), Turija (Bihać, Konjic, Tuzla, Visoko, Srebrenica), Turjak (Bosanska Gradiška, Dobrun kod Višegrada) and Turjačani (Bosanska Gradiška).  

Mujo Hrnjica

                                              Dear God, who was that hero?
                                             It was Mujo Hrnjica of Kladuša.


Even though Mujo Hrnjica is not a mythological character but a real, historical figure, his life is interwoven from beginning to the end with a lot of mystical content which makes him an interesting figure about which one can write a lot.

 

 

 

What Hercules was for the ancient world Mujo Hrnjica is for the Bosnian world. Symbol of courage, a hero of great strength and a dangerous enemy to those that dislike his people. Because of all of those characteristics many Bosnian women named their son's Mujo which was a symbol of great strength and might and it contained prophylactic power against evil and disease.  

  

Historical tradition about Mujo begun in the fall of 1637 when Mujo's uncle Hurem-aga Kozlica brought his two young nephews, who lost their father in the war, from Udbina to Velika Kladuša. The older boy was called Mustafa, but he was called Mujo and the younger one Halil. Besides being younger, Halil was thinner and less bulky during childhood, since his mother couldn't breast feed him because of the great grief she felt for her killed husband, and Halil didn't accept milk from any other woman. That's why they fed him with cow's and goat's milk which brought him the name Stalled Halil.

 

According to legend, in Velika Kladuša Mujo and Halail were met by a mountain faery, calling them with a song in early dawn. She brought them to the river Kladušnica, washed them with dew and fed them with faery milk. Halil didn't want to drink milk, he drank the dew instead while Mujo liked the faery milk very much and drank a lot of it. Because Halil took the dew from the faery he grew into a very handsome young man, all the girls in Velika Kladuša yearned for him, calling him and falling into hysteria once they saw him, Unlike him, Mujo gained enormous physical strength which was given to him by the faery milk. He had a stern and piercing gaze, the one possessed by warriors.

In that sense the mountain faery became the second mother to the future heroes who protected Kladuša fort from the enemy. It is interesting to note that the faeries were mentioned as messengers in songs which transferred news from one warrior to the other and helped defeat the enemies or to explain their tricks and ambushes. How popular the faery cult was is best witnessed by the medieval city Vrnograč, 16 km away from Velika Kladuša, which was according to legend built by faeries. That's why it is called faery town.

 

The tradition about Mujo and the faeries is nothing more than an old Illyrian legend since Mujo's physical appearance is that of a warrior; he's tall, has thick dark hair, a moustache and a beard and strong arms. It's no coincidence that faeries are traditionally tied to Mujo since sine in the Illyrian times the cult of warrior was cherished which was closely associated with the cult of deities, especially the main one Vidasus among whom water nymphs were depicted i.e. faeries. In epic poems numerous encounters of Mujo and the faeries is mentioned, where they communicate and where the faeries heal Mujo's wounds gained in battle. How familiar he is with the faery world, their capabilities and character is best depicted in a poem in which Mujo like a skilled wizard manages to outwit the faeries transformed into goats.

 

According to legend, Mujo Hrnjica always carried an amulet with him on the right side of his suit. The amulet wasn't Islamic in content like the famous amulet-shirt of captain Husien Gradaščević, but ancient which stems from the cult of mother earth. It's a small red bag which contained 9 wheat kernels. Wheat as one of the largest gifts of nature is a symbol of the cult of mother goddess, to whom faeries belong. All of this data confirms that among the Bosnian folk, through long continuity, the ancient tradition and beliefs were preserved. As the legend tells, the enemies found out what was protecting Mujo from death, through venal servants the enemies got a hold of Mujo's amulet. Apparently, the amulet was stolen a day before he was killed.

 

1. Mujo Hrnjica is the most famous hero along with Alija Đerzelez of Bosnian epic poems. The epic Mujo Hrnjica was presented to the wider literary and cultural audience in a striking manner by Kosta Hormann in his first and second journal. There the epic character is best presented in his ethical and psychological wholeness. Poems from these journals were recorded throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina and as such present the best proof of how famous and meaningful this grand hero was. Besides Mujo, his brother Halil is often mentioned, while stories about their third brother Omer are few.

 

 

 

2. On this rock which is called Ploča, which is a folk name for a horse shoe, according to legend the imprint of Mujo's horse Đogat can be seen which was made when they were passing through. The rock is located in Mala Kladuša above the main road between Velika Kladuša and Bihać.

 

 

 

3. The city in which Mujo Hrnjica lived with his family - old town in Velika Kladuša. According to the reports of Krsto Frenkopan Tržački to the archduke in Graz from 20.11.1641. "Mujo lives in Velika Kladuša with his brothers".

 

 

Mujo died between 1633-1676, he was betrayed and murdered by his fake friend Meho Katarica, who had just been converted to Islam.

 

Halil Hrnjica died in Banja Luka during a coupe, during which the famous Tale Ličanin died as well.

 

Omer was ambushed and killed by a chieftain (a leader of outlaws and bandits).     

In the footsteps of the Bosnian sun god

The human species inhabited the Balkan area a million years ago, at that age the remnants of humans found in the caves of Šandalj next to Pula in Croatia were estimated. Throughout all that time our ancestors carried inside of them a feeling of security that the cave offered. That feeling became a part of the human gene.

Numerous caves in BIH are known for having ritual and religious significance in various periods of this area. The oldest holly caves are in Badanj in the canyon Bregava next to Stoca and the cave "Pod lipom" not far from Kada's village next to Sokoc whose cult significance is depicted by drawings on the walls. The drawings can also be seen on the entrance of Ledenjača cave next to Miljevina, on the cliff "Pod pismom" next to Višegrad in Robovići next to Foča, in the Djevojačka (maiden) cave next to Kladanj and also at the entrance to Vjetrenica. We could say that the presence of these drawings in the caves separates BIH from the other countries of south-western Balkans. Out of ten drawings, seven were found in BIH, and the other three are located more to the south in Montenegro and Albania, countries which constituted major parts of the ancient Illyrian kingdom. The mere arithmetic fact gives Bosnia a unique cultural and historical significance. The drawings in the Bosnian caves are situated from the early Palaeolithic period, around 14 thousand years BCE, until the Middle Ages. This shows the multiplicity of religious beliefs where the medium of pictures is only a symbolic means of expression. Without knowledge of this language it is impossible to have a clear insight into the holly Bosnian underground.

Places which simply flourish with deep meaning for the Bosnian spiritual history is the space around the royal city of Bobovac in central Bosnia. Here too the spiritual tradition is long which confirms the numerous cemetery tombstones. On the cliffs above the monastery in Kraljeva Sutjeska there are twelve caves. They are smaller in size which can house one or two people. Previous research has shown their ritualistic significance. Cave Ljuba has an artificially carved semi-circle bench stipadium, famous from when the Christians used to pray sitting in circle. From that bench there is a carved path which leads to two resting places or two praying places. When it comes to the morphology of the cave there is no need for this path since the sides of the cave are not steep. It is obvious that even walking along that path had ritualistic significance. The path ends in front of an altar, artificial window which is oriented towards the east. Who were these people that directed their prayers to the rising sun? 

It is difficult to answer this question fully because we can only follow history satisfactorily to a certain period until ancient Bosnia (Bassania), but deeper into history things haven't been researched as far.  However, undoubtedly the undisputable fact is that the cult of the sun god (Oganj, Ognjev Pir, Zvizdan) has its genesis in the Bosnian region. Its traces are interspersed throughout the religious practice of the Greeks, Celts and the Romans, i.e. people who came into direct contact with the Illyrians. We can't disregard nor forget the influence of ancient Persia through temples of the god Mithra which are also placed inside caves, and the one which is best preserved in Bosnia is located in Jajce and dates back to third century AD. The sun cult didn't even disappear when the Slavs arrived and mixed with the Illyrian tribes, only the name changed into Svetovid, although this name wasn't the sole name of the sun god, since we come across a very widespread name which is derived from the word star (zvijezda, zvizda), Zvizdan. However, all religious practice of this cult still remained unchanged and under strong antique influence, especially Roman and Celtic. The best proof of this is the practice of keeping various rituals and competitions which is undoubtedly of Roman origin. From ritual competitions stems the toponim playground on the Hotijelj hill on mount Ratiš, as well as toponim playground on Trebava.

In ancient and medieval Bosnia all hilltops were dedicated to the sun god, and that's the reason why all rituals took place up high. That's why many mountain tops have the name Zvijezda (Zvizdan) in their root, which is also a folk name for sun today, like the hill Zvijezda above Malešić, terrain Podzvizd on the slopes of Monja, locality Zvijezda in Sladna where the cult area Rahimin tomb is located. Above the village Priluk there is a hill called Sunčevo (Sun's) hill. We shouldn't forget the medieval city Podzvizd in Velika Kladuša which was built on top of a hill, etc. 

which was built on top of a hill, etc.

Three demons of love

According to folk belief there are three stars/demons that appear after sunset, if the sky is clear without clouds. Demon stars move around the sky and they are always on the other side of the world where there is a woman which wants to enchant a man with magical formulas and oaths. The main demon among them is called Palinka and the other two which follow her are Budinka and Nesanka. According to folk belief the three of them are sisters and each of them individually have different magical powers: Palinka who is also called in some formulas Kostolomka, Sjanka or Planika, she brings a lot of love and obsession into the heart of humans. Budinka, Budmirka or Budimka, brings unrest and hysteria and Nesanka, also called Prisanka or Podminta, causes insomnia. The folk imagines them as beautiful girls with long golden hair and bright eyes.

Three demons are classic characters in all rituals of Bosnian magic. Unlike Palinka, Budinka and Nesanka which are female sky demons, there are three male demons which respond to a call by banging one's hand on the wall on the eve of Tuesday and by uttering a specific formula. They are called Indija or Inda, Džindija or Džinda and Šumabir. In love rituals Indija and Džindija are sent on a trip in their lands and Šumabir is directed towards the one that needs to be spellbound and compelled to love. All three of them are imagined as creatures with tails which are blind in one eye and they limp. But none of these physical defects create difficulties for their courtesy and efficiency.
These three names are also mentioned in specific formulas used to negate negative energy, especially spellbound eyes and children weeping. While as in all other cases the first two demons are sent to their native lands Šumabir is sent to bring the child's weeping and spellbound eyes into a river vortex.

According to the occult classification Indija, Džindija and Šumabir are earthen demons which respond to banging against the wall of a house but in the end of the ritual the person calling forth the demons places both hands on the ground praying to earth, or antic goddess mother, to help and direct the demons in the desired direction. In other formulas which are of an esoteric nature the names of the demons are not mentioned, the term "three Jinn and three devils" is used. Based on that, we notice how the exorcists are not quite sure if they belong to a stronger or weaker line of demons.

Sky rooster

In Bosnian mythology there is mention of a large white rooster living in the sky, he is the king of all rooster on earth. When he crows at dawn and stomps his leg in the sky, all the rooster on earth hear him and they have to respond by crowing back. That's the reason why the people liked white roosters far more because they believed that they have better hearing than the roosters of a different colour. Crowing of the rooster is regarded by the folk as something positive since they believe that it chases away the Jinn and devils away from the house.

Belief in the king rooster probably comes from Iran. Ancient Iranians considered a rooster as a holly animal which reminds people to pray to God by crowing. In Bosnia it is believed that a rooster crows every time it sees an angel.

One of the greatest wisdom for the Bosnian dervishes and Sufis which they have to discover is contained in the following riddle: "When a rooster crows and stomps his foot, after seven minutes the heavenly rooster can hear him, and he too crows and stomps his foot. Therefore, what was down, went up, and what was up - never returns down?"