Illyrian god’s and goddesses

In order to grasp the pagan world of our ancestors, especially the one connected with their religious life, we need to gather all the names of the god’s and goddesses of the Illyrian pantheon from the entire area of Illyricum from Albania across Bosnia and Herzegovina to Slovenia. Individual deities had several names but an identical function which is the reason why the Illyrians failed to establish a unique religion across the territory of Illyricum and why it was divided into many cults. But, according to all available data, worshiping the snake, the reincarnation of the Grand Mother, Thane and Vidasus were common to all Illyrian tribes mostly because these deities were connected with the cult of agriculture and fertility.

Dracon and Draccena: divine couple.

Nutrika: goddess, protector of children.

Sentona – goddess tied to the cult of agriculture.

Ika – goddess of fertility.

Histria – goddess, protector of the entire geographical area of Istria.

Boria – god of wind.

Nebra – goddess of storms and mist.

Trita – goddess of health. Her name has no connection to the Istria area, instead it can be recognized in the names from Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the form Tritan, Tritanon or Traitano. It is believed that the name of the goddess has an Illyrian-Celtic heritage.

Melosok – local Illyrian god, protector.

Anzotika, Irija or Prende: goddess of love.

Boa: divine snake.

Verbti: god of fire and the north wind which causes fires.

Beautiful celestials (in Albanian: Bukuri and Qiellit) in ancient Illyrian times, three gods which divided the world into the heavens, sea and underground.

Thana, Tana, Thiana or Zana (Albanian): Illyrian goddess equated to the Roman Diana. She is followed by three goats with golden horns. In Albanian mountains Zana lives as a faery adorned by bravery and beauty. Among the Bosniaks Zana or Tana is a forest faery (Zlatna) which lives in Bosnian forests and helps great warriors, such as Mujo Hrnjica. Deep connection of the goddess Tana is evident through folk songs where the scene of Mujo Hrnjica meeting with the faeries is described, the fairies were disguised as goats, with his shrewdness he manages to unmask them and subject them to his will. Even though in Bosnian mythology it is considered that the forest faery and Zlatna are actually two different faeries i.e. mother and daughter, we are probably talking about one faery which probably has a different name in various parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Identification of the Illyrian goddess in the name of the queen of faeries Zlatna (Zlatana) is more than evident in the name itself, namely, if we subtract first three letters from Zlatana we will get the name Tana or if we subtract the second, third and fourth letter – Zana.

Zlatna is called forest or mountain faery in north-western part of Bosnia with clear meaning of mountain i.e. forest faery or forest mother. Her epithet of queen, confirms her privileged position which she has as the goddess of our Illyrian forefathers.

Medauros or Armatos: god of war. Depicted as riding a horse, with a spear in his left hand.

Redon: protector of seafarers. God in the form of a boy next to which a dolphin appears.

En: one of the three supreme gods.

Perendi or Shurdi: god of thunder, husband of the goddess Prenda. A curious similarity appears between the “Slav” name of the god of thunder Perun and the Illyrian Perendi. If we take into consideration that the Illyrians, besides the Greeks, are the oldest people in the Balkans then it is easy to conclude that Perendi or Perin is nothing more than an ancient Illyrian deity which is wrongly connected with the forced Slav pantheon.

Vidasus or Vidas: one of the names of this grand god of the Illyrian pantheon is Messor or Žetalac which clearly alludes to his dominant role in the cult of fertility i.e. agriculture. Time of harvests was a period dedicated to him.

Mythological beings of Bosnian Roma population

Mythology is first and foremost a social phenomenon which successfully permeates and connects different religious, magical and geological influences producing absolutely fascinating effect - the created myths have a pronounced social effect since through them the Roma, as a nomadic people, could hold on to their unity but also assimilate more easily in all new locations.

The Roma population in Bosnia are mostly Muslims, but because of their dramatic and unlucky past, especially in Romania where they were treated as slaves for centuries, they kept some segments of Christianity such as celebrating certain Christian holidays such as Saint George's day (May 6th) or Christmas. Even though they have Muslim names and they celebrate both Eid's, the Bosnian Roma don't practice fast during Ramadan claiming that sin doesn't enter through the mouth but exits through them. Mainly, the Roma take from every religion the things that suit them and adjust it to themselves and in their everyday life. That's why in Bosnia there is a saying that "among Roma there is no religion".

Even though by analysing descriptions and activity of good and bad demons one can easily notice a chronic lack of old beliefs which they took with themselves from India, the Roma assimilated all myths from other peoples and enriched them with new and original additions making them part of their culture and identity. Though one gets an impression that, besides the names of mythological beings, there are no other connections with the motherland and its rich spiritual culture, still in some expressions one can hint the old beliefs such as the traditional burning of the dead. Namely, the Roma for the word "burial" use praxosarav, which means - I turn into ashes.

In some myths some specific characteristics of Roma are pronounced which actually reflect the mentality of the people, their habits, fears and thoughts. Belief about javišti, though a mixture of the Bosnian belief about Lampir and Prepasti, it is enriched by one of the biggest fears of ancient Roma prone to stealing, namely, they believed that javišta can warn the owner about the thief, and so make his undertaking dangerous and fruitless. Similarly, constant desire of all nations for gold and riches is deeply rooted in the Roma conscience. According to their belief the easiest way to get gold is through Karankočija but usually because of the lack of modesty, the demon would trick the human and would steal what he brought the first time. Karankočija can usually be seen by older people and through legends a lesson is imposed that man even in his old age cannot triumph over himself, his greed and imprudence.

The mythology of Bosnian Roma relies heavily on traditional legends and myths about various supernatural beings of Bosnia and Herzegovina but also numerous other peoples and cultures. A good example for observing common elements is the most famous demon of all - Karankoči. Besides the similarity in names Karankoči and Karanđoloz, which stem from the Turkish language and signify something black, dark, which alludes to a black physical form or black hat, both demons have identical time of appearance - winter. Karanđoloz always appears in the period of the greatest winter i.e. during zehemerija - January, and usually small disobedient children are frightened by this legend. Classic con of the described demon through transformation of gold is characteristic also of Bosnian legends about the Jinn, the legends say that some people, when they performed the spiritual ritual called daira, were fooled by the Jinn and instead of gold they received coal.

Another example of identical or very similar beliefs is also the demon Aždaha. Namely, Aždaha is among the Bosniaks a mythological creature which most resembles a dragon. Fragments of belief in Aždaha is still present today in practice of soothsayers, which, when analysing various forms of lead, see some sort of dent in the lead or an opening, sets the patients diagnosis with the statement: "something swallowed you as an Aždaha", alluding to the effects of the demon. According to the sayings of old Bosniaks, Aždaha is a demon which lives in dark caves or openings in the ground and attacks and swallows people and animals.

But, we shouldn't disregard the real possibility that the domicile people of an area in Bosnia and Herzegovina, under the influence of the Roma legends used some elements for creating their own. Ušušur, water demon which attacks and drags people under the water, it could have its mythological foundation in the myth about Ledaši or Karakončiju. In favour of this thesis the data that the legend about Ušušur is located in a very narrow area and is not present in a large part of BiH.

GYPSY DEMONS

Xalo (baldy): Roma that live in Rogatica believe that Xalo is a wind (bahval), i.e. a phantom, spirit.

Aždaha: is the same as Xalo, but it has hair on its body.

Prepeljaši: restless spirit, he sits in the dust.

Khasehko (spirit inside hay): when a gypsy goes into the field to steal hay and brings it with him, Khasehko sits on top of him and presses him so hard that he is unable to escape. That's why he must throw away half of the hay in order to escape.

Dromehko: If a person has been killed on a road, this demon appears in that spot and scares people.

Bibija or Bibi (plague) is among the Roma the most important deity and deamon. They also call her Tetka Bibija (Aunt Bibija) since centuries ago she saved them from the plague in Egypt. That's why they chose her for their deity. When they drink the Roma toast: "To Bibija's health! (Ande Bibijako sastipe!). Hasiba Salkanović from Čajnič described her in the following manner: "She is a forest divine woman which resides in large mountains, and great forests. She is tall, taller than humans, clad in a white dress, shining as if made out of gold. She can't walk she levitates. She flies at night so no one can see her. She hides from people. She appears only to honest and noble people. Bibija is a rich and beautiful woman, she doesn't have a husband nor children. She doesn't speak, nor sing, nor drink, nor eat. She enters homes but not the poor ones. When there is a big disease she appears as well and brings death to people. We then say: "Go to big men and big women, and hit them with the disease!" We defend ourselves from her by cutting a dogs, cats or a pigs ear and eating it. Then she can't hurt us. When we see her we say: "I eat your vagina, I eat your penis!"

KARANKOČI

Karakonči is considered as one of the most famous demon of Bosnian Roma. It is stated that he is a "gypsy" since he speaks exclusively using that language. He lives in the water, under the ice, he is short and has a red hat on his head or a dark coloured one which holds all his demon powers. He comes to people during the night in order to keep warm next to the hearth.

Around the description and his function there are a lot of conflicting data, which is a clearly and influence of mythological traditions that the Roma encountered. While it is often mentioned that Karankoči has a red hat on his head, in Vlasenica, Čajnič, Sarajevo and Visoko, the Roma believed that his hat was made out of dirty intestines which is placed over his head. Karakonči has horns which he uses to attack his victims. According to belief, while he is hitting the humans with his horns, they fall of into the water and out if it see walnut is created "šungurja".

While some Roma consider Karakonči as well-intentioned and harmless, others describe him as a demon which calls out to people at night to go out of their house so he can take them to a river and drown them. That's why the claims of Halil Salkanović from Čajnič are closest to a real mythological division:

"Ledaši live under the ice and not Karakonči. He comes among the Roma during the winter and speaks in gypsy language. He is good and won't do you any harm, he likes to play with the children. There are various Karakonči. They are dwarfish. They have dark hats on their heads. If you steal the hat of a Karakonči, he will be obedient and will be your servant. If you wish for a bag of gold he will bring it to you. When you give him back his hat, he farts, and instead of gold you are left with a bag of coal. Šungurja (Trapa natans) are the horns of Karakonči, that herb is good for magic".

There are several names for Karakonči, in Vlasenica they are called Demiri, in Čajniče two names are mentioned Amir and Demir, etc.

MEĐAŠI

Demon which is the size of a ten year old, he is green, has a moustache and a beard. He carries a handkerchief on his head. His season is the summer. He appears always at dusk carrying an axe on his shoulder. He can turn into a spruce tree and can fall directly on a human. He tries to harm people by all means. Međaši suck the blood out of people, the bite spot becomes dark. These demons are afraid to cross over water and walk in a ploughed field.

BAHVALJKO

Bahvaljko (wind spirit): turns into linen cloth and tries to cover a person with it. It is believed that at night this wind exits out of the dead person and attacks humans which are traveling at that moment. It jumps on their back and rides them until the person crosses over the territory administered by that spirit, the spirit dismounts and runs away. Humans are ill for half a month when attacked by Bahvaljko.

UMALJAKO

Umaljako (field spirit): a very evil spirit in the form of a cat or a dog. He throws iron over human legs and when a person falls to the ground he jumps on top of him and tries to choke him. When a man is carrying a haystack, the spirit jumps on top of it, and the man has to stop because of the weight. He must stop and sit down. If a man lights a match, Umaljko disappears and the man can continue.

E PHURDAKO

E phurdako (spirit under the bridge): he is like a small monkey. He rolls around, turning, playing in front of people in human clothes. If a gypsy comes to steal something, he shouts after him: "Look he is stealing!". On a bridge, one can be a victim of an attack by this demon which can paralyse his hand, leg and entire body. That's why Roma people avoid crossing bridges at night.

MUSTAKALO

Mustakalo (forest spirit, forest rooster): has big eyes and teeth, big moustache and backside. He is as big as a donkey. He resides on a spruce (tree) and when he likes a female he grabs her with his white hands. In Vlasenica it is believed that Mustaklo lingers in forests under large trees. They call him Ušonja or Ušan.

BENG

 Beng is a female demon that causes epilepsy among humans. In Zavidovići the Roma believe that when a child is caught by epilepsy one should take off all of his clothes, cut it with a knife and throw it onto the ground, in order for the seizure to stop. In Kozarac it is believed that Beng swears with a goat's leg when he is in trouble.

RUKIJA

Rukija is a female demon which doesn't get old or young, her face is the same as it was 2000 years ago. She hides and lives in a hole under the earth or under large rocks. She is as big as a woodpecker but she can grow and become larger. She is nude. She has a small hat on her head, she asks for bread and money. In another description the following is said; the lower part of her body is white and her upper black, she has a leather belt on her neck with beads. She comes to people at night, in the month of March. She creeps on the ground and feeds on animals but she likes to eat pumpkins. If she sees a man, she can bite. If you give her food or money, she will go away. You cannot kill her. She comes to people at night, she talks to them then. She is very evil and she would strangle humans if she could. At night she uncovers humans and says: "Pay me! If you won't, I'll kill you!" She then laughs and disappears. Rukija fights against Karakonči, she looks for him and wants to kill him since he doesn't want to be with her. She doesn't allow him to be under the ice. She hasn't been sighted since WWII.   

BILAHČE

Demon's which play in circles at dusk, usually at crossroads. They play every day, especially on Sundays. They are most dangerous at night, they don't have bones nor flesh, they are just wind that floats in the air. Bilahče are white demons, in white gowns. You cannot see their faces. There are male and female demons among them. Their main demon is called Hadžija. They don't speak any of the languages, not even the Roma one. They are present in houses, water, fields, hay, under the bridge and other places. They love to scare people, when you go, they go, as soon as you stop they stop as well. As soon as the rooster crows, they dissapear. They can cause such a strong gust of wind that can knock a person to the ground and make him sick. They turn into rabbits, birds, cats, dogs, pigs and wolfs and they scare people. A human can go mad out of fear, and can die out of shock. His limbs get stiff and he can't move. The diseased can be cured by an Imam. When a male and female Roma fight, Bilačke brings a rope and throws it between them. Bilahče also kicks with his feet. He allows a human to pick up a haystack, and then he jumps on the haystack, and a person can die from it. Bilahče is often the cause of great headaches. When a headache occurs, the diseased utters: "My head hurts". He needs to add: "May she be eaten by a dog". If a man is struck by the wind (Bilačho) he gets cramps and can go numb out of fear. We then curse and say bad things so we can free him of this state.

JAVIŠTA

JAVIŠTA: a spirit that the Roma are perhaps most scared of. That's why they are reluctant to about it. Javište is a demonic being which has identical characteristics of many beings from Bosnian mythology such as Lampir, Werewolf, Prepasti, Prikaze, Karanđoloz, Mubarećija. Javišta resides in graveyards and is dressed in a white gown. It is believed that she can originate only from a dead person. Specifics of this being is that it produces different sounds which can be sounds of the wind, some animal but also human voice groaning and moaning. Javište appears when a person dies and a cat or dog crosses over his body. It always appears at night, flying over houses and shouting: "There is the thief, he came to steal!". It speaks with a high pitched voice, and it can bark and growl like a dog. Javišta appears in different animal forms but also in the form of the wind, which is considered very dangerous. At night it can climb on a traveller's back, whose weight inhibits the person from walking. To chase it away the person must shout in Bosnian: "Džin baška! Šejtan baška! Nalet je bilo! Idi svojim putem, ko si da si!" It is afraid of fire and runs away from it.

ČOXANI

Is a bearded woman i.e. a witch that drinks blood of the children. According to belief the woman is doing it unconsciously, while she is asleep, that's when her soul exits her body and goes towards small children, attacking them and drinking their blood. She doesn't attack grownups. She appears in the form of a butterfly or a bird, sometimes a wolf or a large toad. She is also described as the wind which suddenly jumps on a man's neck or back. As soon as the man starts moving his shoulders he will feel a great weight on himself. She also feeds on shellfish and sometimes attacks chickens and cats. When she is in the form of a butterfly she attacks fire because she wants to take it with herself into the air and set ablaze the gypsy village. A formula uttered in Bosnian is used against her: "U gore, u mora neka ide, u kamenje i stijene, nalet ga bilo!".

GENOCIDE IN BOSNIA - SREBRENICA 11.07.1995 - 11.07.2014

Deities of Bosnian mythology

Archaeological monuments reveal, and ancient historical sources confirm the presence of Illyrians on the Balkans from the beginnings of the first millennia of the old era. Therefore the Illyrians appear on the historical stage of south-eastern Europe alongside the Greeks. The right to set this historical parallel was first given by Homer, who mentions in his work the Iliad at a dozen places the Illyrian tribe Phrygians, the allies of the Trojans. The Illyrians as well as other peoples, worshiped shapeless spirits in the form of natural phenomena for a long time such as clouds, rain, forest, moon, tree, streams… Varon recorded for the Romans that they worshiped god’s without statues and that they were anthropomorphized during the age of the Etruscan kings.

 Under the Roman occupation the Illyrians slowly accepted some segments of the Roman religion along with the language and culture, but they continued to worship their ancient gods in the new form, such as Vidas (Vidasus) and Thana (Tana). Besides the Romans a strong influence on the Illyrians were also the Celts and somewhat the Greeks. Even though according to the available data they never managed to establish a unique religion on the entire region where they lived (Illyricum) all tribes are besides their traditional deities worshiped the sun, moon, snake – incarnation of the Grand Mother, forest, trees and water.

Deities of our forefathers Bind, Tana, Vidas, Anzotika, Ika, Jutosika, Eja, Melesokus, Borija, Irija, Medaur, Black sky dragon are only some from the Illyrian pantheon which they prayed to and which they worshiped. Besides the Illyrian authentic deities in Bosnia and Herzegovina we also have Roman and Persian gods and goddesses, the influence of astral deities i particularly pervasive, primarily the solar god Mithra and Tir god of rain and fertility.

 

 

BIND

Bind or Bindus (old Indian bindu, h – drop) is the old Bosnian god of streams and water in general and he is represented as a naked man, with a rudder or trident in his right hand. His cult was especially widespread on the territory of north-western part of Bosnia and part of Croatia (Lika) where Japodes were dominant, a powerful Illyrian tribe with strong Celtic impurities.
In the area of Bihać, at the spring of Privilice, numerous archaeological and epigraphic findings which confirm the dominant influence of his cult in the lives of the Bosnian forefathers. It is considered that the name Bihać has its root in the name of the grand deity. At cult locations where he was worshiped numerous horns of goats were found, which proves that the Japodes sacrificed, among other things, animals to their deity. Thus on the monument dedicated to Bind, near Privilice above the votive inscription there is an etched picture of an altar between two mountain goats with their front legs raised; the third mountain goat is depicted under the inscription.
The connection our ancestors had with the cult of this deity is best proven by the century long practice of the Bosnian people’s pilgrimage in the early dawn, usually during the period of the new moon, towards individual streams which were considered to be medicinal where they would leave presents in the form of money, food or clothes to this deity as sacrifices for healing and help.

 

VIDASUS

Vidasus is the god of forests and nature, and together with the goddess Thana the deity of fertility. He was worshiped under various names, at some places as Vidasus, elsewhere as Magla (enus?), or Cor…, Messor and the like. This name Cor is unusually reminiscent of the Celtic god Cernunnosa which had an identical description.
Similarly, it is presumed that with this Illyrian deity the famous name Grabovius is connected (where from our Illyrian word grab (hornbeam) stems from), which is mentioned on the so called Iguvine tablets from Umbria in Italy. Given that on the same monument the name Japuzkum (Japudiscum) nomen is mentioned – the enemy of the Umbra – we conclude that the Umbra took the name Grabovius (this epithet comes with thename Jupiter, as well as that of Mars and Vovionus) from the Japodes.
 It is considered that Vidasus, or Romanised Silvan, was the supreme Illyrian god in the period before Rome, and he also kept that function after it. The Roman’s accepted him and equated with the Greek Pan the protector of forests, flocks and nature and a companion during hunting. Visual depictions of the Illyrian Vidasus depict him as a being which is half goat and half man. Vidasus was worshiped during the beginning of the lighter part of the year, at the end of April and beginning of May.

 

THANA

Thana or Tana, goddess of forests and hunting, was called Forest Mother by the Illyrians and numerous magical rituals and beliefs were connected with her, which we can still find in Bosnian magical beliefs about the Mountain faery which women call her in spells “Sister, mother” and they describe her as a beautiful young woman in white clothes with long hair. On one relief she is depicted with unbound hair, clad in a short belted tunic, which actually looks like it is made out of two parts, since the skirt is pleated, while the upper part of clothes is completely smooth with sewn in sleeves.

Thana has her hands half outspread and in one hand she is holding a leafy branch and in the other a fir branch. Thana is often connected with the god Vidasus (Vidas). Four votive monuments were dedicated to them, discovered in Topusko, close to warm stream. Remnants of temples and numerous inscriptions were also found in Topusko, dedicated to the Roman god of forests, pastures and streams, and based on that it was concluded that the Illyrian Vidasus by his attributes matches with that Roman deity and that, according to that fact, his chaperon Thana coincides to the Roman Diana.

It is interesting to note that there is a name Tanija among the Bosnian people.

FAERIES

The Illyrians revered mountain faeries – nymphs, protectors of streams, creeks, mountain glades and caves. On monuments they are always depicted as young and playful girls, often in a circle, to whom the god Vidasus is playing a flute.

 

TREE – GOD PROTECTOR

As I already mentioned the Illyrians before they began to anthropomorphize their deities, they worshipped them in their celestial shape (sun, moon, stars, etc.), natural (tree, stream, forest, etc.) or animal form – snake, salamander, frog… That’s why the initial religion of our forefathers could be called shamanism, while in the later periods, especially after intertwining with Greek, Celtic and Roman influences, it obtained its classic ancient form with a pronounced pantheon. Belief in a tree as a divine symbol among the Illyrian tribes perfectly coincided with their religious practice based on worshiping nature and its forces. Belief that inside a tree there are supernatural forces which have a fatal influence on a human’s life was present for centuries among the Bosnian people.

According to belief each man possessed his own tree in the forest, which is unknown to him, but if he accidentally cuts it down it can cause his death. Such beliefs were recorded in various parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina such as Rogatica or Kamengrad near Sanski Most. Identification of a man with a tree is then not accidental but as we can see it stemmed from Illyrian religion according to which each man has his own tree in which dwells his god protector. Each tree possesses in itself the strength of the Grand Mother, goddess of the earth, and that is why it is directly connected with the source of life but also dead forefathers. That’s why in traditional Bosnian belief the tree was always equated with humans and their luck or better to say with their lives.

Throughout the centuries, as the religious influence of our forefathers weakened, there were some alterations but never such drastic ones which could uproot the original belief. In ethnological books we can find the description of the ritual in Žepče according to which a person that has bad luck or has a longer streak of issues and difficulties, when something is not going according to his plan, he climbs a tree and another person stands underneath the tree trunk and starts to cut the tree down. Then the unlucky person, while still sitting on the tree asks: “What are you doing?” and the other one replies: “I will cut down your luck so you can get a new one!” Then he cuts the tree down which falls down to the ground together with the man sitting on top of it. After that it is believed that the person will receive new luck and that nice things will start to happen to him. By observing rituals we will notice a symbolic “death” and “resurrection” of man (luck) which falls down together with the tree. He willingly sacrifices himself to “die” together with the tree and in such a way he will avoid the anger of the tree deity which will punish anyone who cuts it down. With this ritual he will get a new tree as a protector and with it new luck.

 

 

The "grand" mother Tiamat

One of the oldest myths relating to the genesis is the one recorded with cuneiform on clay tablets from the ancient Sumerian civilization. According to a legend a large water abyss (Apsu) was always present and in it lived daemons and gods, until the intervention of the two deities Anshar and Kishar the grand gods of Babylon were created, among others Anu, Bal and Ea which started the creation of the world as we know it today. Apsu, god of chaos, along with goddess Tiamat "the mother of everything", was strictly opposed to this creative endeavour. Even though Tiamat is considered to be a personification of evil the title of mother is not taken away from her which creates a confusion when it comes to the understanding of this myth. Tiamat is also the guardian of the Tablet of destiny, which additionally confirms that she was a being of great power and position. It is believed that she was a hermaphrodite or a being with two bodies, since legends claimed that she had her male part called Kingu. Thanks to such a specific state Tiamat gave birth to numerous demons' out of which an army against the gods of creation was established. But, despite that Tiamat was defeated by Marduk who created the firmament and the world ocean by gutting her body, while they created humans out of her male part i.e. its blood.

In this myth which is based on the creative intervention of primordial gods, it is easily concluded that the creation of the world and humans from the body of Tiamat and its male counterpart has taken a central place. Tiamat - "the mother of everything" as a symbol that united the male and female principles inside it, represents a universal symbol of genesis and fertility. Without her sacrifice nothing would exist and she deservedly holds the title of "mother of everything". With this myth the human civilization received its first official name for the "grand" mother, the same one which in other cultures is known as Astarta, Izida, Demetra.
The cult of the Grand Mother (Magna Mater) according to the archaeological evidence dates from the beginning of human civilization and as such it became the first mass religious movement on earth. The earliest depictions of the goddess date from the Stone Age where it was depicted on the walls of the caves through symbols of a shield or a triangle, which represents her vagina according to the archaeologists. From that period we also have numerous stone and clay figures of the Grand Mother depicted as a large woman with big breasts and belly as well as pronounced hips.
A lot of religious historians agree the thesis that her cult of fertility probably arose somewhere on the territory of today's Syria, Turkey and Iraq from where it spread throughout the entire Mediterranean. It certainly is supported by an interesting find in southern Anatolia where the archaeologists found numerous miniature statues which depicted the goddess in three life stages: girl or virgin, mother i.e. a woman giving birth to a child or a bull and old lady. In Bosnia and Herzegovina there are several important archaeological localities where traces of Neolithic villages were found as well as life inside them, such as the locality Lug in the outskirts of Goražde where archaeologists, among others, found a couple of sculptures made out of baked clay for which it is believed that they manifest the cult of Grand Mother.     

The cult of Grand Mother in Bosnia and Herzegovina

While in the ancient age of paganism the cult of fertility was celebrated, in monotheism large changes occurred and everything that belonged to paganism was demonised. The cult of Grand Mother was targeted specifically which can be seen through the monotheistic dogma where the patriarchal principal was emphasized according to which the only deity was a male figure. But, when we analyse Islam and Christianity in detail we come to a conclusion that even modern monotheism didn't succeed in its intent to repress the cult of fertility and the belief in Grand Mother.
While in Christianity the idea that god is male is being constantly imposed (i.e. the father), in Islam god has no sexual characteristics. The holy ghost would be the closest thing to what the Grand Mother represented but all sexual characteristics were taken away from it and that in the beginning ensured its intangibility. Even though virgin Marry in later stages became all that which was represented by the Grand Mother, like the Egyptian Izida, she was quite cleverly "pushed" out of genesis and those first important details of religious doctrine. In such an ingenious way her influence was again marginalised to such an extent that she cannot usurp the dominant male principle. But, while the first religion regards Satan as a male, the second one negates it and actually in him sees a female, but again through a masked role of androgyny since here to the dreadful thought that a female principle could represent divinity wanted to be marginalized, and even if it was in the end negative.
Namely, in the Islamic tradition, through various hadith we can find Tiamat in the form of Iblis (Satan) for whom it was believed to be androgynous, a being able to reproduce itself. According to what is presented by hadith, Iblis is a being which is very fertile which causes him (her) to lay three thousand eggs each day out of which demons hatch. If we now disregard the classical monotheistic hatred towards women moulded through some kind of totally ambiguous being, which is a divine opposition, we cannot disregard fertility and the power of reproduction of that being, basically a copy of the key elements from the ancient cult of the Grand Mother. Another fact which is of the utmost importance in illuminating the way to the Grand Mother is contained in the fact that the throne of Iblis, the ruler of dark, is located on an island in the middle of the sea. The element of water which is inseparable from the Grand Mother and the creation of the world and universe is the natural habitat of the being that produces life every day.

 

Cult of fertility among the Illyrians

First known inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina were Illyrians, an ancient nation of Indo-European descent, whose presence in our country was confirmed in the 2nd century BC. Written records about them were made by the Greeks and Romans, who lauded the Illyrians warlike nature. Thanks to relatively long geographical isolation the Illyrians managed to preserve their religious tradition which under dominant roman presence and similarity of pagan traditions slowly started to merge with the Roman religion. Such a sequence of events is completely predictable mostly because the Illyrian people didn't build large monuments, inscriptions and temples to gods like the Romans, whose deities were literally omnipresent thanks to their sculptures and holly places. Illyrian temples were usually modest buildings; or they were incorporated with the natural surrounding such as the temple (chapel) of Bindu, god of streams, the most important deity Japod, tribes which inhabited north-western part of Bosnia, especially the part where Bihać is located today, the name itself has some similarity with Bindu.

 
When we look at the religious tradition of the Illyrians today we cannot disregard Greek, Roman and Celtic influences since these three cultures had a smaller and larger influence in the religious thought and practice. Since the 4th century BC, when the barbarian tribes started to threaten the borders of the Roman empire, until the appearance of Avars and Slavs at the beginning of 7th century, that socio-religious influence entered its final phase and determined the future of the Bosnian folk which is best illustrated by the example of the Bogomil movement. Resistance which the Bosnian people showed towards the church can be equated with the Illyrian rebellion against the Romans or the more recent resistance against the aggression on our country from Serbia, Montenegro and Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina; where the Bosniaks, both militarily overpowered and outnumbered showed superhuman strength and fighting spirit which they inherited from their Illyrian forefathers. 

 

Sun, moon and earth

On a wider territory of the Illyrians the cult of fertility existed, which was based on the dominant female principle of creation i.e. glorification of the Grand Mother. In close correlation with it, through various elements, there were solar and lunar cults, so called holy trinity which consisted of one male and two female deities - sun god on one side and goddess of earth and moon on the other side. The reason for that is not random which is confirmed by scientific studies according to which one man is required to impregnate hundreds of women. The female was always the more dominant bearer of fertility and life. According to medical data, statistically more male children are born than female, but the mortality rate is higher among male new-born's. In a similar manner, the percentage of mortality among mature men is higher as a result of various risk related situations which men are exposed to because of an increased hormonal activity and adrenaline rush. If we add to this the frequent wars across our planet we come to a conclusion that even nature itself made an effort to ensure a larger percentage of female population.

As we already pointed out, all three cults among the Illyrians were inseparable from each other and that's why the cult of the Grand Mother shouldn't be specifically analysed through mythology and belief tied to female symbology like the classic ones - earth, wheat, water, Moon, since without its symbiosis with the male, usually ithyphallic deity, no reproduction is possible which we can see in the myth of Tiamat and King. Even though the male role in the process of fertilization is far smaller in comparison to the cycle of pregnancy, growth of the seed and birth, it can't be minimised since it is of crucial importance which is confirmed by folk belief which states "the male grants the child strength to grow and exit the mother's womb". The term "strength" has a double meaning and behind it one can find folk meaning for sperm, but anyway, it is easily compared with the sun under whose light and warmth the entire nature grows. That the sun has kept its fatherly epithet among the folk can be seen by a belief which claims that "sun wouldn't shine in the sky if there were no orphans".

 

Snake - basis of the cult of fertility

The cult of the snake, which was dominant in the entire religious and social concept of our forefathers, represents the core of the cult of fertility for the most part because of the phallus shape of the snake. The Illyrians showed their first forefather as a suckling child wrapped by a snake which offers the child wisdom and magical power, so that he can turn into a snake once he dies. Besides being a totem symbol the snake represented to the Illyrians the largest deity whose spirit permeates the whole of nature and universe. Its role in the cult of the Grand Mother is especially important. Namely, the snake, or in its heavenly form a dragon, is a classic symbol of fertility. In the Bosnian tradition the connection of the snake and the dragon can be tied to the personification of the vegetative cycle which is analogous to the one from the Greco-Roman mythology. The dragon in fact makes a circular journey, he comes out of the water, flies and passes to another location where he enters a pit, hole, disappears inside the earth and then reappears after some time.
The snake has its dualistic nature, it can represent the principle of good but also of evil, which makes it a universal symbol. Also, after her winter sleep the snake sheds its skin which results in the belief that it is a symbol of resurrection and new life. That's why it is present in many legends and folk stories which clearly reflect its power of evil but also of good. According to an ancient legend a long time ago there were three suns in the sky. On one occasion the big dragon swallowed two suns and the third one was saved by a swallow which took it high up in the sky.
Analysing other folk legends the connection between a snake and swallow with the sun cult is obvious, the sun represented a symbol of light and life. The life cycle of these animals is directly tied to the sun, namely, both animals change their life cycle once winter coms and when sun rays recede; the swallow flies south, to warmer areas where she stays until spring, and the snake recedes into the earth for deep hibernation. The return of swallows in spring and the emergence of snakes are considered to be real indicators of spring and the beginning of the period of fertility.

 

According to legends the swallow struck the snake on its tongue and split it into two, the snake bit the swallow on its tail and also split it into two. The background meaning of both these legends is hidden in the horns, the symbol of fertility, which can be identified in the form of a snakes tongue or swallows tail. Besides that, the snake and the swallow have been seen as the protectors of households since the old ages and that's why they are tabooed, under no circumstances can you destroy a swallow's nest or kill a snake which lives close to a house. They guarantee luck and fertility to each household to which they are connected to.

Giving birth in nature

Traditional connection of Illyrians with the cult of fertility and the Grand Mother is especially apparent in the process of giving birth in nature, without help of the other person. The pregnant woman was left to her own resources and the help of the goddess whose attention she gained through nature. Dr. Enver Imamović writes in an informative and interesting way in the History of the Bosnian army: "Most old writers describe the Illyrians as brave and resourceful and that seldom women stood behind them in battles. For them, on the other hand, they used to say that they had unusually easy births. When they would feel labour, they would go to a nearby grove and they would give birth there by themselves. They would then bring the child into the village and they would say to their fellow members that they found the child in the woods, and all would be amazed by that fact.
The same trend was present among the Bosnian women throughout the ages who usually gave birth in fields, groves or some ancillary building; it was very common for a woman coming home from a field to carry a baby in her other hand while also carrying a sheaf of wheat or corn. They also had a custom like their forefathers to say that they found a child in the garden, grove or some field.  

 

Bogomil legend about conception and birth

In the Bogomil story about Did Adže, which is found at the north-western part of BiH, the origin of the human species is described in a rather interesting way. The legend contains all necessary elements which allude to disguised performance of love, sexual act, defloration, dwelling underground (inside a womb) and birth itself.
The story spoke about an old man with three sons. The father would go with his sons every day to the field, but would leave one of them behind to make lunch for all of them. The oldest and the middle son had the same thing happen, after they prepared lunch, Did Adže would arrive riding a rooster and he would take their food away. On the third day the youngest son stayed behind, who being aware of past events, came up with an idea on how to fool Did Adže and keep the meal. Fooling Did Adže to hold a bent branch for him the young man quickly tucked the beard of Did Adže into the split of the tree and trapped him.
Beard as the symbol of manhood but also sexual maturity is perfectly treated in the scene when the beards get stuck in the split of the tree which alludes to the ability of penetration. Outsmarting Adža the young man passed the test of manhood, he confirmed his sexual maturity, and with that he gained the ability to have sexual intercourse. This is alluded to by the rest of the story where Did Adže in return for freeing him offers him information about a place with a well in which a dragon dwells. That monster which terrorizes local citizens receives an offering in the form of a virgin so he can open the flood gates and ensure fertility to the land.
Dragon which dwells in the dark depth of the well symbolizes classic fear of loss of virginity which is present in conservative areas, where one doesn't talk about it nor is a daughter briefed about it by her mother. Defloration with which the girl-virgin becomes a woman i.e. a future mother is shrouded in various taboos and archetypal symbols. A dragon searching for a victim, or better to say a victim in flesh and blood, is not randomly chosen if we analyse Bosnian mythology a bit deeper. Namely, according to mythology a dragon can impregnate a woman, but also a cow, and in such a manner cause the birth of a snijet, which is among the Bosnian folk regarded as a baby dragon. The same legend claims that there are no females among the dragons and in order to ensure their survival they are forced to have intercourse with humans, but also certain animals, which overwhelmingly reminiscent of the story from the Old Testament about the fallen angels, which is again a processed story from the old myths of the pagan culture.
In the Romanian mythology the dragon is also represented as a lustful and skilful lover, shaped in the mythological figure called Zbubirol, he possesses pronounced magnetism and if we analyse it further we can see that he without a doubt represents first of all healthy sexuality free of all false morals but also fertility. In a sense legends about dragons can be compared with another symbol of unrestrained sex and fertility, ancient Pan, who according to legends had sexual intercourse with both humans and animals.

In the continuation of the Bogomil legend it is said that the young man is lowered into the well by his two brothers using a spruce basket, where he locates the girl. After the fight and perforation of the dragon with the sword the blood is spilt and the girl is saved. The young man places the girl inside the basket and gives his brothers a sign to pull her out, which they do, but blinded by her beauty, they decide to cover the well with branches and stones in order to prevent their brother to get out. This starts the young man's odyssey through the underworld where thanks to a good deed he acquires the affection of a large eagle (symbol of a soul) by saving his chicks from a snake.
It is of particular importance to mention that this part of the Bogomil story has a lot of similarities with the Nordic myth about the large ash tree which represents the centre of the world. Its roots are located in the underworld, and its crown in the sky where the gods dwell. Between the roots and the crown the world of men is located. A squirrel constantly travels up and down the tree transferring news between the eagle, located on the crown and the snake, located in the root.
In the rest of the Bogomil story we learn that the eagle out of gratitude to the young man offered to help him get out of the underworld. But there too we can see interesting allegories describing birth. Namely, the eagle asks from our hero 40 lambs which he will need to maintain his strength during the trip out of the underworld. Why 40, is best explained by the fact that pregnancy lasts for 40 weeks or 280 days. When the young man managed to find all of the lambs he begins his long gruelling journey on the giant eagles back towards the opening through which he will pass into the world of men. At the end of the journey the story turns into a drama since the hero realizes that he has thrown the last lamb into the eagle's beak. Fearing that the bird will not have enough strength to exit the underground the young man decided to undertake a desperate action - he cut his own leg off (or umbilical cord) and threw it into the eagle's beak. He then fainted from the pain and he woke up lying on a meadow, in the world of men.  

Wheat - the symbol of the Grand Mother

During the Ottoman occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the massive conversion of Bogomils to Islam not much was done to preserve the ancient identity of the Bosnian people, at least in the segment that relates to the cult of the Grand Mother. The ancient religion of nature finds its place in a completely non- Islamic tradition about fairies, various demonic creatures, magical rituals of healing, fertility preservation and invoking prosperity. The conversion from one religious doctrine to another is never complete since Monotheism is a modern version of Dualism which is the successor of even older pagan systems. That is why the Turkish invaders nurtured many other archaic beliefs besides Islam, especially because of the dominant influence of neighbouring Iran and Syria.


Among the Bosniaks of that time, which converted to Islam and to belief in one God which is interwoven with pagan oral tradition on which it is based, and it is particularly manifested through folk poetry where they describe encounters of faeries, ancient forces of nature, and Bosniak heroes like Mujo Hrnjica. An amulet made out of nine grains of wheat which according to folk tradition Mujo Hrnjica carried with him fully corresponds with the old Bosnian cult of faeries, especially the Mountain fairy, which is a socially accepted predecessor of the ancient cult of the Grand Mother. The tradition itself represents the Mountain fairy in the role of a mother since she willingly "adopts" two boys, Mujo and Halil, regardless of the fact that their biological mother is still alive and present. The fairy shows maternal feelings and care which is particularly demonstrated in that part of the legend where she uses her breast milk to feed Mujo, giving him a part of her magical powers on purpose and making a half-mythical creature out of him. Certain legends claim that the amulet with nine grains of wheat were carried by Mujo since he was told to do so by the mountain fairy which additionally supports the thesis of direct connection of the Mountain fairy with the Grand Mother, the ancient goddess of the Illyrian tribes, to which all ancient cultures dedicated wheat as a cult mark. Herodotus in one of his descriptions of the Illyrians mentions that Illyrian women bring wheat straw as a sacrifice to one of their goddesses. The same ritual was done by the Celts towards their goddess Brigid.

When we analyse the belief about wheat throughout the past we will notice that it is also pronounced among the Bosnian people. Wheat was considered a sanctity since it stems from heaven just like the bees and sheep. Bread, milk and honey as three products of these holly gifts constitute the staple of human diet but also offering to gods. Tradition moulded in a distinct Bosnian prophecy speaks about the disappearance of these three heavenly gifts before judgement day. That the belief in the prophylactic power of the seed of wheat is not only a thing of the past is evident by the following examples. During WWII and enemy shelling the livestock was usually killed, mostly sheep's grazing, which represented a great loss during the scarce wartime period. According to the saying of Fata Bajrić from Bihać her grandfather placed three seeds of wheat on each sheep as magical protection and miraculously none of the sheep's got hurt which was not the case for his neighbour's sheep's.
During the last aggression on Bosnia and Herzegovina undertaken by Serbia and Montenegro (1992-1995) many defenders of our country had a small bundle sown in by their mothers in their uniforms which contained nine kernels of wheat wanting to protect them from enemies. Acting just like the Mountain faery acted towards her "adopted" son Mujo Hrnjica again demonstrated a deep connection of the Bosnian people with their ancient roots. In both cases it is noticeable that the ancient belief in the power of wheat among the Bosnian people is activated in especially dire situations or better to say during war times.

Women were, which is quite logical, always more connected with the Grand Mother since the element of that cult can be found in numerous female love formulas but also those intended for healing. Help during marriage and healing are among the main features of power of the Grand Mother which is confirmed by the following basma:
Hey N. all the girls, women and widows
are crows, magpies and foxes,
and only I am a Mountain faery to you.".

During a healing ritual of the stomach the stravarka utters the following: "I'm preparing this medicine in the name of the Mountain faery, sister, mother.".

Doorstep - the altar of the Grand Mother

It is known that people during the Palaeolithic era used caves as natural shelters and places to raise a family. Exactly because of that fundamental value certain archaeologists named the caves Earth's uterus from which the human species sprung up but also the cult of the Grand Mother, which is today evident through various archaeological findings. The border between the outside world and sunlight, as well as the inside of the cave and darkness represented a holly, magical place for those living in the Palaeolithic era. Crossing over one of them could mean exposure to danger and to others protection against it. And then when the human species abandoned caves and began building houses and settlements , in the collective consciousness the religious importance of the entrance was still present, which presented a special part of the house which separated the outside world from the inside world.

Since the Illyrian times the house, i.e. hearth and home were under the protection of the snake, Ctonic and totem animal, which presented the main segment of the cult of fertility since it connects male (sun) and female principle. The belief in the snake-protector of the house is still present today in the belief among the people in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Unlike the hearth the doorstep as a symbol for entrance i.e. exit into the world of magical symbology always represented the female reproductive organ and as such it was dedicated to the goddess of life i.e. the Grand Mother. Describing certain Bosnian beliefs about the doorstep we come to very interesting data which supports the theory about its cult background and symbology about fertility. The first data that directed me towards that conclusion I have found during the analysis of the rituals of love magic, which were practiced by Bosnian women throughout the ages, and whose primary purpose was to secure love which will lead to marriage and birth. Items used in these rituals were usually placed in the immediate vicinity of the doorstep either at the beginning or end of the ritual, behind the house door, whether it was ćeremid (hollow roof tiles), broom, axe; they were also buried under the doorstep itself like the plant milogled (lat. Asarum europaeum), locks of hair, nails, dirt taken from footprints, etc. And in those rituals with separated items, such as two half of a sugar cube, the items would be fitted on the entrance door in order for the man whose love she wanted can pass between the items. As soon as he would pass between them the woman would take the two parts of the item and would put them back together. The idea that the magical ritual is undertaken in the immediate vicinity of the doorstep stems from the wish to secure intervention of the goddess herself who should use her powers to help the woman's intent to ensure that she becomes a wife and a mother.
It is no coincidence that the folk statement speaks about the foundation or three angles of the house being on the woman's back and only one on the man's, this emphasises that the home is where the woman is dominant. This statement is strangely reminiscent of the mythological belief about the earth being on the back of the bull Tur, an animal-symbol of the Syrian goddess Mother Ishtar or Astarta. The analogy between the woman and the earth is quite obvious among the Bosnian folk and it is especially stressed through the symbology of the number 40. According to belief the earth every 40 years "cleans" itself from humans through great wars or natural disasters. Pregnancy among the Bosnian folk is considered a very beneficial state for the entire organism since the woman after birth, 40 weeks after birth, cleans herself from everything bad and in such a way improves her health.

Let's, however return to the doorstep and its symbology and meaning through folklore. The bride in the north-western part of Bosnia, so called Cazinska krajina (Cazin's frontier), places her handkerchief over the doorstep and kisses it before she enters her husband's household for the first time, showing in such a manner her respect towards her new home. Then she enters the house, carrying her handkerchief, she then approaches the hearth and throws the handkerchief into the fire to symbolise that she has left bachelorhood and that she has entered the period of active fertility and reproduction. The act of bending down to kiss the doorstep should be seen as an act of showing respect towards the Grand Mother, from which she is asking for the blessing of fertility. Besides that, the bride as the future mother wants to gain favour from the goddess by this act, since the goddess should in the future help her female children realise her motherhood just like she did. This connection is evident in the rituals of love magic.  

The doorstep besides the hearth was always the holiest place inside the house which is confirmed by numerous taboos connected to it, especially the one that claims that it shouldn't be stepped on by feet since by doing that "you destroy your home". Under the term destroy the home, fertility is implied. Direct connection of the doorstep and fertility is manifested through a ban imposed on women sitting on the doorstep with the explanation that she will have "a difficult childbirth". This means that she is risking being punished with difficult childbirth by the Grand Mother because of the sacrilege that she is doing.

One is subject to the danger of ograme (attack of evil spirits), according to folk belief, if one doesn't wash oneself after an intimate act and walks over the doorstep. Analysing the presented we get a feeling that a man is not subject to any taboos after the sexual act or dangers while he is inside his home, but as soon as he goes outside he risks becoming a target of evil spiritual beings. Leaving the house and crossing the doorstep the protection of the Grand Mother disappears, the protector of fertility and family, since the human body which has remnants of vaginal secrete and sperm alarms demons, eternal enemies of mankind and new life, which has a negative effect causing spiritual and physical pain to humans.

REINCARNATION IN THE TRADITION OF THE BOSNIAN PEOPLE

Bogomilsm was based on Persian dualism: the master of the spiritual world was god, and the material, which was transitory, was ruled by the evil god Satan. The same principle is evident in Christianity, Islam and Judaism where the principle of good and evil are clearly accentuated, and that god for various reasons never managed to defeat Satan and that's why both of them have their kingdoms and eternally opposed armies. The balance of power is equal with a religious promise that Satan will be eventually beaten and destroyed.

The main element of the spiritual world was the soul, for which the Bogomils believed that with migrations or metempsychosis it aims at eternal perfection or nirvana - final liberation. According to Bogomil doctrine, it was forbidden to kill animals and birds, and even to destroy their eggs, because in every animal there can be a human soul doing penance for the sin's a man has done for his lifetime. That old Bogomil beliefs left a huge mark on the Bosnian people is best witnessed by the still active belief from north-western Bosnia which claims that evil people turn into animals after death such as pigs, cows, horses,. in order to serve humans in their new life and to pay for their sins.

One important record, which dates from the Ottoman occupation of BiH, named "From Bosnia with pictures" speaks explicitly about the very widespread idea of reincarnation among the Bosnian people. Author Clement Božić commented, like numerous other contemporary observers, seeing packs of dogs moving freely around the neighbourhoods and streets of Sarajevo: "Bosniaks take care of them (dogs), by giving them complete freedom; they say that some of them may contain a human soul and if someone has a bad dream, in the morning they buy bread and feed them to the dogs."
The only animal that cannot have a human soul is the snake, probably because of the Illyrian legend according to which a snake has been created 40 years prior to any living being on this planet. This mythological belief of the Bosnian people is completely analogous to the ancient representation about the forefather of all Illyrians which was wrapped by a snake when he was a baby. In many ways a snake has been officially given a favoured status and she had a special place among the Bogomils which can be seen from numerous legends created throughout the Middle Ages where this animal plays a major role.
To the Bogomils, unlike other Christian churches, the snake didn't represent the reincarnation of evil since according to their doctrine the tree of knowledge of good and evil was a woman (Eve), and Adam sinned for copulating with her, and that's why both of them were banished from heaven. Thanks to this fact the existence of the cult of snake was never brought into question throughout any period of Bosnian history, not even during the turbulent Middle Ages. The answer to the question why was only the snake exempt from the karmic circle is that she as a holly animal cannot be the bearer of a human's sinful soul, her task is to use her mystical powers to protect every house and all souls living in them.


Even though the Bogomils weren't inclined, according to their religious belief, to excessive indulgement of earthly goods, they were, like all others, exposed to constant temptations which ruled the evil material world which additionally made it harder for a soul to achieve enlightenment. According to Bogomil's conception the end of the reincarnation cycle was only possible after receiving the sacrament at death with which the soul would achieve its spiritual regeneration. It was only possible through this type of cleansing and after separation from the material world which was under the control of evil. The final goal was to ensure the unification of the soul with the good god. In a lawsuit in Torino in 1388 a claim mentioned that a soul which doesn't receive consolamentum transfers into the first body to which it comes across to, either human or animal; this continues on until it is blessed by its spiritual father on its deathbed.

When we summarise all that has been written so far we come to some sensational data which reveals to us that in Bosnia and Herzegovina we find very clear and evident basic doctrines about karma and reincarnation which can be considered to be rare, if not the only country in this part of Europe, with such traditional concept which certainly didn't form in the Bogomil religion, but it's appearance dates from ancient times. That's why this particularity deserves special research.
Reincarnation as a term was well defined in Bhagavad Gita, authoritative writing of a Vedic teacher which dates from the 5th century BCE, defined as a cycle of birth and death in the circle of samsara, and karma as causal effect according to which by our own actions, thoughts and feelings we create our own destiny. The idea about reincarnation can be found on all continents. But, for us the most important data is that reincarnation as a thought was present among the old Celts and Persians, two peoples which more or less had a defining influence on the religious understanding of the Bosnian people, especially during ancient and middle ages.
 

Celtic dragon and goddess of moon

In order to get a more detailed understanding of the beginnings of the religious idea of reincarnation in Bosnia and Herzegovina it is necessary to follow the snake (dragon) trail on the unique symbol of ancient past of this country - tombstone. Even though the representation of a dragon on a Bosnian tombstone such as the one in Boljuni or on the famous tombstone from Donje Zgošće accidentally or on purpose didn't stimulate interest for serious observations, but was interpreted in a simpler way, as heraldic motifs without any deeper background meaning, it can be a road sign to any serious researcher when it comes to discovering religious and cultural heritage of the Bosnian people.


Luckily today we know that depictions of dragons are not accidental nor in the form of an ornament without meaning, but they represent, among others, proof of deep symbiosis of Celts and Illyrians, through cultural and religious practice. Namely, on some tombstones there are depictions of two-headed dragons which is the same as the Celtic symbol of the two-headed dragon. The similarity of the Celtic and Bosnian (Illyrian) tradition doesn't end there, but it gets its full meaning through depictions of the Celtic moon goddess Arianhrod on one of the tombstones which brings us to recent evidence about the dominant influence of the cult of the Grand Mother and dragon as symbol of fertility - new life.

Celtic-Gaul depiction of a two headed dragon. The symbol of a two headed dragon on Bosnian tombstones

 

Arianhod is known under several names: "High Fruitful Mother", "Silver Wheel", "Silver Circle", "Sky Goddess", etc. In etymology it is considered that her name comes from the Welsh word "silver" or "ariawyn" - "silver woman". The origin of the name is also brought into connection with Ariadne or Aradia, Greek lunar goddess, which is connected to the cult of the growing moon. Ariana, whose meaning is "one very holly", is a familiar Illyrian name and is very present today on the territory of Albania, Kosovo and BiH. Other variations of this name are also in use such as Ilirijana or Ilirija.

Celtic goddess of moon Arianrhod. Celtic goddess of moon Arianrhod on a Bosnian tombstone.

Celtic religious influence on Illyrian tribes left a relatively deep mark especially on the cult of the Grand Mother. Namely, according to Celtic legend, Arianhrod takes care of warriors and their souls which perfectly fits into the legend about Mujo Hrnjica and the Mountain faery. In the same manner, Arianhrod is the goddess of reincarnation, new life, with which she represents unrivalled mother of life. Notion of reincarnation i.e. resurrection and new life was not foreign to the Illyrians, on the contrary, all that symbology was represented by the snake, their totem, which personified the unbroken circle of life by shedding its skin.

In accordance with everything said so far, we can conclude that reincarnation notion was inseparable part of the cult of fertility and the Grand Mother and that as such it was part of the tradition of our people throughout all centuries, in a smaller or larger extent. That's why we can find it in the Bogomil tradition but also during middle Ages in folk religion.  
 

From Illyrian's and Bogomil's to the Bosnian holocaust

The Bogomil movement is without a doubt one of the phenomena of Middle Age Bosnia and Herzegovina since it testifies about the strength and unity that characterised the Bosnian people of that time. Aware of their uniqueness, especially Illyrian descent, the Bosnian's of that time had the hardest time during the violent transition from paganism to Christianity since the new religion was foreign and completely absurd to them. This is the reason why Bosnian people never gave up their old cults, especially the cult of the snake, which were perfectly in line with coexistence with nature, its gods, especially the Grand Mother and astral deities. In line with that there had to be a resistance, the same one that almost militarily ruined the Roman Empire, which found the Bosnian people in Bogomilism. We can assume that the Bosnian people recognised some similarities between Bogomilism and Illyrian cults, but more important is the fact that through Bogomilism they achieved certain autonomy from the Christian church, in order to continue their ancient practices of worshiping their old cults, with such convenience. Assemblies on high localities where the Illyrians glorified the heavenly deities was one of the practices of the Bogomils.

The wish for preserving tradition and cultural identity resulted in the fact that the Bogomil faith completely affirmed itself in Bosnia and Herzegovina becoming the main religious but also political movement based on the revolutionary idea of resistance towards dictatorship and hegemony which came from two directions - Vatican and Byzantium. Mass conversions in the next period of Bogomils to Islam, without force or threats, are the best proof of the claims that support that Bogomil's saw in the new faith the best protection and solution to their existence.

From all of the above we can find the root of animosity that the Bosnian people were subject to from Serbs and to some extent Croats. Even though Bosnian people were third in number when it comes to people in the former Yugoslav republic, cultural genocide was practiced over them not just in that Republic but decades earlier, which all culminated in the period from 1992 to 1995 when it assumes an ever harsher shape expressed through ethnical cleansing. At that time of the Bosnian holocaust the most ruthless crimes were undertaken since WWII, when Bosniaks, faced with the possibility of complete annihilation, were killed in numerous Serbian concentration camps, which resulted in mass graves whose number up until today has only been partially discovered.

This all was preceded by a well thought out strategy of destroying the identity of Bosniaks, appropriation of everything that made a people a nation, where Serbian ethnologists and anthropologists played a major role. Namely, all folk beliefs of the Bosniaks were appropriated as being Serbian along with the thesis without valid evidence that Bosniaks themselves were actually Serbs?! But, this is not only the case with Bosnia, but also other neighbouring countries, and through their ethnological literature we can find entire chapters of folk tradition of Croatia, Montenegro, Bulgaria or Romania under the joint name "Serbian beliefs". A special part is made up of traditional beliefs of Turkey, their customs, cuisine, numerous words, even music, which Serbs today regard as authentic works of their cultural history?!